Franco E, Bagnato B, Marino MG, Meleleo C, Serino L, Zaratti L. Hepatitis B: epidemiology and prevention in developing countries. World J Hepatol. 2012; 74–80.
WHO – World Health Organization 2017. Global hepatitis report, 2017. Available online: https://www.who.int/hepatitis/publications/global-hepatitis-report2017/en/. Accessed on 24 April 2020.
Shi M, Wei J, Dong J, Meng W, Ma J, Wang T, et al. Function of interleukin17 and 35 in the blood of patients with hepatitis B related liver cirrhosis. Mol Med Rep 2015; 121–126.
Hu KQ. Occult hepatitis B virus infection and its clinical implications. J Viral Hepat. 2002; 243–257.
Raimondo G, Caccamo G, Filomia R, Pollicino T. Occult HBV infection. Semin Immunopathol. 2013;35:39–52.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Raimondo G, Locarnini S, Pollicino T, Levrero M, Zoulim F, Lok AS, et al. Update of the statements on biology and clinical impact of occult hepatitis B virus infection. J Hepatol. 2019;71:397–408.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Zobeiri M. Occult hepatitis B: clinical viewpoint and management. Hepat Res Treat 2013; 259148.
Sowole L, Labbett W, Patel M, O’Riordan A, Cross J, Davenport A, et al. The prevalence of occult hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection in a large multi-ethnic haemodialysis cohort. BMC Nephrol. 2015;16:12.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Vitale F, Tramuto F, Orlando A, Vizzini G, Meli V, Cerame G, et al. Can the serological status of anti-HBc alone be considered a sentinel marker for detection of occult HBV infection? J Med Virol. 2008;80:577–82.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Urbani S, F Fagnoni, Missale G, Franchini M. The role of anti-core antibody response in the detection of occult hepatitis B virus infection. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2010; 48:23–9.
Torbenson M, Thomas DL. Occult hepatitis B. Lancet Infect Dis. 2002;2:479–86.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Gerlich WH, Bremer C, Saniewski M. Schüttler CG, Wend UC, Willems WR, et al. Occult hepatitis B virus infection: detection and significance. Dig Dis 2010; 28.
Cheng HR, Kao JH, Wu HL, Chen TC, Tseng TC, Liu CH, et al. Clinical and virological features of occult hepatitis B in patients with HBsAg seroclearance post-treatment or spontaneously. Liver Int. 2014;34:e71–9.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Yip TC, Wong GL. Current knowledge of occult hepatitis B infection and clinical implications. Semin Liver Dis. 2019;39:249–60.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Said ZN. An overview of occult hepatitis B virus infection. World J Gastroenterol. 2011;17:1927–38.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Samal J, Kandpal M, Vivekanandan P. Molecular mechanisms underlying occult hepatitis B virus infection. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2012;25:142–63.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Kim MH, Kang SY, Lee WI. Occult HBV among anti-HBc alone: mutation analysis of an HBV surface gene and pre-S gene. Yonsei Med J. 2017;58:557–63.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Mücke MM, Backus LI, Mücke VT, Coppola N, Preda CM, Yeh ML, et al. Hepatitis B virus reactivation during direct-acting antiviral therapy for hepatitis C: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2018;3:172–80.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Honarkar Z, Alavian SM, Samiee S, Saeedfar K, Zali MR. Occult hepatitis B among chronic liver disease patients. Saudi Med J. 2005;26:601–6 (PMID: 15900369).
PubMed
Google Scholar
Takeda H, Takai A, Inuzuka T, Marusawa H. Genetic basis of hepatitis virus associated hepatocellular carcinoma: linkage between infection, inflammation, and tumorigenesis. J Gastroenterol. 2017;52:26–38.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Emara MH, El-Gammal NE, Mohamed LA, Bahgat MM. Occult hepatitis B infection in egyptian chronic hepatitis C patients: prevalence, impact on pegylated interferon/ribavirin therapy. Virol J. 2010;17:324.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Squadrito G, Cacciola I, Alibrandi A, Pollicino T, Raimondo G. Impact of occult hepatitis B virus infection on the outcome of chronic hepatitis C. J Hepatol. 2013;59:696–700.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Coppola N. Role of occult hepatitis B virus infection in chronic hepatitis C. World J Gastroenterol. 2015;21:11931–40.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Ferrari C, Penna A, Bertoletti A, Valli A, Antoni AD, Giuberti T, et al. Cellular immune response to hepatitis B virus-encoded antigens in acute and chronic hepatitis B virus infection. J Immunol. 1990;145:3442–9.
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Jung MC, Hartmann B, Gerlach JT, Diepolder H, Gruber R, Schraut W. Virus-specific lymphokine production differs quantitatively but not qualitatively in acute and chronic hepatitis B infection. Virology. 1999;261:165–72.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Sobao Y, Tomiyama H, Sugi K, Tokunaga M, Ueno T, Saito S, et al. The role of hepatitis B virus-specific memory CD8 T cells in the control of viral replication. J Hepatol. 2002;36:105–15.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Chang JJ, Wightman F, Bartholomeusz A, Ayres A, Kent SJ, Sasadeusz J, et al. Reduced hepatitis B virus (HBV)-specific CD4+ T-cell responses in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-HBV-coinfected individuals receiving HBV-active antiretroviral therapy. J Virol. 2005;79:3038–51.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Zhang Z, Zhang JY, Wang LF, Wang FS. Immunopathogenesis and prognostic immune markers of chronic hepatitis B virus infection. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2012;27:223–30.
Article
PubMed
CAS
Google Scholar
Chisari FV, Isogawa M, Wieland SF. Pathogenesis of hepatitis B virus infection. Pathol Biol. 2010;58(4):258–66.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Huang Z, van Velkinburgh JC, Ni B, Wu Y. Pivotal roles of the interleukin-23/T helper 17 cell axis in hepatitis B. Liver Int. 2012;32:894–901.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Bauer T, Sprinzl M, Protzer U. Immune control of hepatitis B virus. Dig Dis. 2011;29:423–33.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Li Y, Wang Y, Liu Y, Wang Y, Zuo X, Li Y, Lu X. The possible role of the novel cytokines IL-35 and IL-37 in inflammatory bowel disease. Mediators Inflamm. 2014;13:63–29.
Google Scholar
Barathan M, Mariappan V, Shankar EM, Abdullah BJ, Goh KL, Vadivelu J. Hypericin-photodynamic therapy leads to interleukin-6 secretion by HepG2 cells and their apoptosis via recruitment of BH3 interacting-domain death agonist and caspases. Cell Death Dis. 2013;4:e697.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Valaydon Z, Pellegrini M, Thompson A, Desmond P, Revill P, Ebert G. The role of tumour necrosis factor in hepatitis B infection: Jekyll and Hyde. Clin Transl Immunol. 2016;5(12):e115.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Das A, Ellis G, Pallant C, Lopes AR, Khanna P, Peppa D, et al. IL-10-producing regulatory B cells in the pathogenesis of chronic hepatitis B virus infection. J Immunol. 2012;189:3925–35.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Du WJ, Zhen JH, Zeng ZQ, Zheng ZM, Xu Y, Qin LY, et al. Expression of interleukin-17 associated with disease progression and liver fibrosis with hepatitis B virus infection: IL-17 in HBV infection. Diagn Pathol. 2013;28(8):40.
Google Scholar
Portilho MM, Mendonca A, Bezerra CS, Do Espirito-Santo MP, De Paula VS, Nabuco LC, et al. Usefulness of in-house real time PCR for HBV DNA quantification in serum and oral fluid samples. J Virol Methods. 2018;256:100–6.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Guindon S, Dufayard JF, Lefort V, Anisimova M, Hordijk W, Gascuel O. New Algorithms and Methods to Estimate Maximum-Likelihood Phylogenies: Assessing the Performance of PhyML 3.0. Syst Biol. 2010; 59(3):307–321.
Anisimova M, Gascuel O. Approximate likelihood-ratio test for branches : a fast, accurate, and powerful alternative. Syst Biol. 2006;55(4):539–52.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Alencar RS, Gomes MM, Sitnik R, Pinho JR, Malta FM, Mello IM, et al. Low occurrence of occult hepatitis B virus infection and high frequency of hepatitis C virus genotype 3 in hepatocellular carcinoma in Brazil. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2008;41:235–40.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Branco F, Mattos AA, Coral GP, Vanderborght B, Santos DE, Franca P, et al. Occult hepatitis B virus infection in patients with chronic liver disease due to hepatitis C virus and hepatocellular carcinoma in Brazil. Arq Gastroenterol. 2007;44:58–63.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Fontenele AM, Gainer JB, Da Silva ESDV, Cruz Santos MD, Salgado JV, Filho N, et al. Occult hepatitis B among patients with chronic renal failure on hemodialysis from a capital city in northeast Brazil. Hemodial Int. 2015;19:353–9.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Motta JS, Mello FC, Lago BV, Perez RM, Gomes SA, Figueiredo FF. Occult hepatitis B virus infection and lamivudine-resistant mutations in isolates from renal patients undergoing hemodialysis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2010;25:101–6.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Pereira JS, Goncales NS, Silva C, Lazarini MS, Pavan MH, Fais VC, et al. HBV vaccination of HCV-infected patients with occult HBV infection and anti-HBc-positive blood donors. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2006;39:525–31.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Peres AA, Dias EA, Chesky M, Alvares-da-Silva MR, Jobim LF, Goncalves LF, Manfro RC. Occult hepatitis B in renal transplant patients. Transpl Infect Dis. 2005;7:51–6.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Rosa AS, Araujo OC, Savassi-Ribas F, Fernandes CA, Coelho HS, et al. Prevalence of occult hepatitis B virus infection and torque teno virus infection and their association with hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic hepatitis C patients. Virus Res. 2017;15:166–72.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Hou J, Wang Z, Cheng J, Lin Y, Lau GK, Sun J, et al. Prevalence of naturally occurring surface gene variants of hepatitis B virus in nonimmunized surface antigen-negative Chinese carriers. Hepatology. 2001;34:1027–34.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Raimondo G, Pollicino T, Squadrito G. What is the clinical impact of occult hepatitis B virus infection? Lancet. 2005;365:638–40.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Kim MJ, Kwon OS, Chung NS, Lee SY, Jung HS, Park DK, et al. The significance of anti-HBc and occult hepatitis B virus infection in the occurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with HBsAg and anti- HCV negative alcoholic cirrhosis. Korean J Hepatol. 2008;14:67–76.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Nishikawa H, Osaki Y. Clinical significance of occult hepatitis B infection in progression of liver disease and carcinogenesis. J Cancer. 2013;4:473–80.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Shi Y, Wu YH, Wu W, Zhang WJ, Yang J, Chen Z. Association between occult hepatitis B infection and the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma: a meta-analysis. Liver Int. 2012;32:231–40.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Fernandez-Rodriguez CM, Gutierrez ML, Lledo JL, Casas ML. Influence of occult hepatitis B virus infection in chronic hepatitis C outcomes. World J Gastroenterol. 2011;17:1558–62.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Fukuda R, Ishimura N, Hamamoto S, Moritani M, Uchida Y, Ishihara S, et al. Coinfection by serologically-silent hepatitis B virus may contribute to poor interferon response in patients with chronic hepatitis C by down-regulation of type-I interferon receptor gene expression in the liver. J Med Virol. 2001;63:220–7.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Fukuda R, Ishimura N, Niigaki M, Hamamoto S, Satoh S, Tanaka S, et al. Serologically silent hepatitis B virus co-infection in patients with hepatitis C virus-associated chronic liver disease: clinical and virological significance. J Med Virol. 1999;58:201–7.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Kazemi-Shirazi L, Petermann D, Muller C. Hepatitis B virus DNA in sera and liver tissue of HBsAg negative patients with chronic hepatitis C. J Hepatol. 2000;33:785–90.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Chemin I, Zoulim F, Merle P, Arkhis A, Chevallier M, Kay A, et al. High incidence of hepatitis B infections among chronic hepatitis cases of unknown aetiology. J Hepatol. 2001;34:447–54.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
De Maria N, Colantoni A, Friedlander L, Leandro G, Idilman R, Harig J, et al. The impact of previous HBV infection on the course of chronic hepatitis C. Am J Gastroenterol. 2000;95:3529–36.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Sagnelli E, Coppola N, Scolastico C, Mogavero AR, Filippini P, Piccinino F. HCV genotype and “silent” HBV co-infection: two main risk factors for a more severe liver disease. J Med Virol. 2001;64:350–5.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Martin CM, Welge JA, Shire NJ, Shata MT, Sherman KE, Blackard JT. Cytokine expression during chronic versus occult hepatitis B virus infection in HIV co-infected individuals. Cytokine. 2009;47:194–8.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Germanidis G, Hytiroglou P, Zakalka M, Settas L. Reactivation of occult hepatitis B virus infection following treatment of refractory rheumatoid arthritis with abatacept. J Hepatol 2012; 56:1420–1421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2011.10.011.
Han ZQ, Huang T, Deng YZ, Zhu GZ. Expression profile and kinetics of cytokines and chemokines in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Int J Clin Exp Med. 2015;15:17995–8003 (PMID: 26770394).
Google Scholar
Fierro NA, Roman S, Realpe M, Hernandez-Nazara Z, Zepeda-Carrillo EA, Panduro A. Multiple cytokine expression profiles reveal immune-based differences in occult hepatitis B genotype H-infected Mexican Nahua patients. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2011;106:1007–13.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Tarragô AM, da Costa AG, Pimentel JP, Gomes STM, Freitas FB, Lalwani P, et al. Combined impact of hepatitis C virus genotype 1 and interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α polymorphisms on serum levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in Brazilian HCV-infected patients. Hum Immunol. 2014;75(11):1075–83.
Article
PubMed
CAS
Google Scholar
Xiao P, Chen QF, Yang YL, Guo ZH, Chen H. Serum soluble interleukin-2 receptor levels in patients with chronic hepatitis B virus infection and its relation with anti-HBc. World J Gastroenterol. 2006;12:482–4.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Baskic D, Vukovic VR, Popovic S, Djurdjevic P, Zaric M, Nikolic I, et al. Cytokine profile in chronic hepatitis C: an observation. Cytokine. 2017;96:185–8.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Ma WT, Yao XT, Peng Q, Chen DK. The protective and pathogenic roles of IL-17 in viral infections: friend or foe? Open Biol. 2019;9(7):190109.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Wu JF, Wu TC, Chen CH, Ni YH, Chen HL, Hsu HY, et al. Serum levels of interleukin-10 and interleukin-12 predict early spontaneous hepatitis B virus e antigen seroconversion. Gastroenterology. 2010;138(165–172):e161–3.
Google Scholar
Fenoglio D, Bernuzzi F, Battaglia F, Parodi A, Kalli F, Negrini S, et al. Th17 and regulatory T lymphocytes in primary biliary cirrhosis and systemic sclerosis as models of autoimmune fibrotic diseases. Autoimmun Rev. 2012;12:300–4.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Zhang JY, Zhang Z, Lin F, Zou ZS, Xu RN, Jin L, et al. Interleukin-17-producing CD4(+) T cells increase with severity of liver damage in patients with chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology. 2010;51:81–91.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Arababadi MK, Ahmadabadi BN, Kennedy D. Current information on the immunologic status of occult hepatitis B infection. Transfusion. 2012;52:1819–26.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Cachem FCOF, Dias AS, Monteiro C, Castro JR, Fernandes G, Delphim L, et al. The proportion of different interleukin-17-producing T-cell subsets is associated with liver fibrosis in chronic hepatitis C. Immunology. 2017;151:167–76.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Lapiński TW. The levels of IL-1beta, IL-4 and IL-6 in the serum and the liver tissue of chronic HCV-infected patients. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz). 2001;49(4):311–6.
Google Scholar
Shah S, Ma Y, Scherzer R, Huhn G, French AL, Plankey M, et al. Association of HIV, hepatitis C virus and liver fibrosis severity with interleukin-6 and C-reactive protein levels. AIDS. 2015;29(11):1325–33.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Bouezzedine F, Fardel O, Gripon P. Interleukin 6 inhibits HBV entry through NTCP down regulation. Virology. 2015;481:34–42.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Klein C, Wu¨sterfeld T, Assmus U, Roskams T, Rose-John S, Mueller M, et al. The IL-6-gp130-STAT3 pathway in hepatocytes triggers liver protection in T cell-mediated liver injury, J Clin Invest 2005; 115:860–869.
Nelms K, Keegan AD, Zamorano J, Ryan JJ, Paul WE. The IL-4 receptor: signaling mechanisms and biologic functions. Annu Rev Immunol. 1999;17:701–38.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Yao Y, Li J, Lu Z, Tong A, Wang W, Su X, et al. Proteomic analysis of the interleukin-4 (IL-4) response in hepatitis B virus-positive human hepatocelluar carcinoma cell line HepG2.2.15. Electrophoresis 2011; 32:2004–2012.
Zhang L, Hao CQ, Miao L, Dou XG. Role of Th1/Th2 Cytokines in serum on the pathogenesis of chronic hepatitis C and the outcome of interferon therapy. Genet Mol Res. 2014;13:9747–55.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Abayli B, Canataroğlu A, Akkiz H. Serum profile of T helper 1 and T helper 2 cytokines in patients with chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Turk J Gastroenterol. 2003;14(1):7–11.
PubMed
Google Scholar
Bes M, Vargas V, Piron M, Casamitjana N, Esteban JI, Vilanova N, et al. T cell responses and viral variability in blood donation candidates with occult hepatitis B infection. J Hepatol. 2012;56:765–74.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar