Skip to main content
Download PDF

Mechanisms of the action of povidone-iodine against human and avian influenza A viruses: its effects on hemagglutination and sialidase activities

Virology Journal volume 6, Article number: 124 (2009) Cite this article

Abstract

Background

Influenza virus infection causes significant morbidity and mortality and has marked social and economic impacts throughout the world. The influenza surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA), act cooperatively to support efficient influenza A virus replication and provide the most important targets for anti-influenza chemotherapy. In this study, povidone-iodine (PVP-I), which has a broad-spectrum microbicidal property, was examined for its inhibitory effects against influenza virus infection in MDCK cells and the mechanisms of PVP-I action on HA and NA were revealed.

Results

Results obtained using a novel fluorescence- and chromogenic-based plaque inhibition assay showed that 1.56 mg/ml PVP-I inhibited infections in MDCK cells of human (8 strains) and avian (5 strains) influenza A viruses, including H1N1, H3N2, H5N3 and H9N2, from 23.0–97.5%. A sialidase inhibition assay revealed that PVP-I inhibited N1, N2 and N3 neuraminidases with IC50 values of 9.5–212.1 μg/ml by a mixed-type inhibition mechanism. Receptor binding inhibition and hemagglutinin inhibition assays indicated that PVP-I affected viral hemagglutinin rather than host-specific sialic acid receptors.

Conclusion

Mechanisms of reduction of viral growth in MDCK cells by PVP-I involve blockade of viral attachment to cellular receptors and inhibition of viral release and spread from infected cells. Therefore, PVP-I is useful to prevent infection and limit spread of human and avian influenza viruses.

Background

Among the three types (A, B and C) of influenza viruses, A type is the most virulent, infecting various avian and mammalian species and causing human pandemics as a consequence of antigenic change (antigenic shift) in their surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) [1]. Sixteen HA and 9 NA subtypes have been recognized so far [2]. HA and NA interact with sialic acid receptors on the host cell surface, the former mediating membrane fusion that results in virus infection and the latter possessing sialidase activity that cleaves sialyl linkages between viral HA and cellular receptors to release progeny viruses and separate viruses from HA-mediated self-aggregation, allowing the virus to infect a new host cell for continuing virus replication [3].

Virus infection can be inhibited by the use of compounds that bind to viral HA [4–6], inhibit NA activity [7–11] or inhibit both HA and NA activities [12]. Two NA inhibitors, sialic acid and shikimic acid analogues, have recently been licensed for treatment of influenza A and B infections: zanamivir [13] (Relenza®), which is administered by inhalation, and oseltamivir phosphate [14] (Tamiflu®), which is administered orally as a prodrug and is converted by hepatic esterase to its active form, oseltamivir carboxylate (OC). However, influenza A and B viruses with mutations in the NA gene have developed resistance to oseltamivir and zanamivir [15, 16]. The worldwide circulation of oseltamivir-resistant seasonal H1N1, highly pathogenic avian H5N1 [17, 18] and the pandemic (H1N1) 2009 [19] have provided an impetus to develop new antiviral and antiseptic materials.

In the nineteenth century, povidone-iodine (PVP-I), a polyvinylpyrrolidone iodine complex, was developed and found to have a potent broad-spectrum activity against bacteria, mycobacteria, fungi, viruses and protozoa [20]. PVP-I has become widely used as an antiseptic and disinfectant. Despite long-term use, development of PVP-I resistance in microorganisms has not been reported [21, 22].

PVP-I products have been found to be effective in inactivating a variety of enveloped and nonenveloped viruses, such as polio [23], herpes simplex, herpes zoster [24], and human immunodeficiency viruses [25, 26]. Anti-influenza virus activity of PVP-I also has been reported recently [26–28]. Pretreatment of avian influenza H5N1, H5N3, H7N7 and H9N2 viruses with PVP-I products, such as solution, scrub, gargle and throat spray, in the range of 0.23–2%, reduced viral infectious titers to undetectable values in embryonated hen's eggs [27]. Both aqueous (Betaisodona®) and liposomal PVP-I inactivated human influenza A virus (H3N2), resulting in reduction of the virus titer by more than 4 orders of magnitude in Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells [28]. However, the target sites and mechanisms of PVP-I action on influenza A and the other virus infections have hitherto remained unknown. In this study, we investigated mechanisms underlying PVP-I anti-influenza activity. The apparent reduction of influenza A viral infectious titers after incubation with PVP-I products within a short period of time [26–28] led us to investigate two spike glycoproteins on the viral surface, HA and NA, which play essential roles in viral infection, as targets of PVP-I anti-influenza effects.

Results

Inhibition by PVP-I of influenza A virus growth in MDCK cells

We first determined the cytotoxicity of PVP-I against MDCK cells employed as host cells of influenza viruses in this study by using a cell counting kit-8 assay. Half-maximum cytotoxic concentration of PVP-I after 24-h exposure of MDCK cells to PVP-I was 2.4 ± 0.2 mg/ml. PVP-I ranging from 0–1.56 mg/ml, which had no effect on MDCK cells, reduced virus yield in MDCK cells in a dose-dependent manner (Figure 1B). In comparison with virus yield in the absence of the inhibitor, 1.56 mg/ml of PVP-I reduced human virus yield by 59.7–97.5% and avian virus yield by 23.0–57.4%, suggesting enhanced sensitivity towards human viruses compared to that toward avian viruses. OC, used as control, inhibited A/Memphis/1/71 (H3N2) infection by 62% and 73% at concentrations of 0.13 μM and 80 μM, respectively, whereas it inhibited A/DK/HK/313/78 (H5N3) infection by 20% and 37%, respectively, at the same concentrations.

Figure 1
figure 1

Inhibitory effect of PVP-I on influenza viral infection in MDCK cells. (A) A simplified diagram of the infection assay used in this study. (B) Quantification of viruses in cells at Ex355/Em460 is expressed as percent virus yield (left Y axis) and percent inhibition (right Y axis) of untreated infected cells.

Full size image

Binding of influenza A viruses to sialoglycopolymers and guinea pig erythrocytes and inhibition by PVP-I

In agreement with hemagglutinins from avian and human influenza viruses, which prefer binding to α2,3- and α2,6-sialylated polymers, respectively [29], A/Memphis/1/71 and A/DK/HK/313/78 viruses predominately bound to sialoglycopolymers terminated in α2,6 and α2,3 respectively (Figure 2A). Binding of A/Memphis/1/71 to α2,3 and α2,6 polymers was reduced by fetuin (up to 1.25 mg/ml) and PVP-I (up to 0.78 mg/ml), whereas that of A/DK/HK/313/78 was inhibited by fetuin but not by PVP-I (Figure 2B).

Figure 2
figure 2

Effect of PVP-I on direct binding activity of influenza viruses to glycopolymers. (A) Virus binding activity to glycopolymers linked with α2,3 (filled red square) and α2,6 (filled blue triangle)-sialic acids. (B) Inhibition of virus binding to a specific polymer. Percentage of untreated control viruses was plotted against inhibitor concentration. (filled green square) α2,3 linkage + PVP-I; (empty pink square) α2,3 linkage + fetuin; (filled green triangle) α2,6 linkage + PVP-I; (empty pink triangle) α2,6 linkage + fetuin.

Full size image

Quantitative inhibition of viral HA binding to sialo-glycoconjugate receptors on the erythrocyte surface by fetuin control and PVP-I is shown in Figure 3A and summarized for PVP-I activity in Table 1. No erythrocyte hemolysis and no significant change in pH (pH of each well ranging from 6.52 to 7.20) in the assay system were observed. In general, fetuin exhibited higher inhibitory activity (ranging from 0.02 to 1.25 mg/ml) than that of PVP-I (0.2–12.5 mg/ml).

Table 1 Inhibition by PVP-I of sialidase activity, hemagglutination and infectivity activity of influenza A viruses
Full size table
Figure 3
figure 3

Inhibition by PVP-I of influenza virus hemadsorption activity on guinea pig erythrocytes. (A) Quantification of minimum fetuin (left panel) or PVP-I (right panel) concentration required for inhibition of virus erythrocyte agglutination. (B) Visualization of virus erythrocyte agglutination under a light microscope. Bars = 50 μm. Agglutination morphology was compared with positive (no PVP-I) and negative (no virus) controls.

Full size image

A qualitative analysis of hemagglutination inhibition showed that hemagglutination (guinea pig erythrocyte clumping) of human A/Memphis/1/71 (~400 hemagglutination units (HAU)) and avian A/DK/HK/313/78 (~400 HAU) was completely inhibited by 2.50 mg/ml and 5.00 mg/ml of PVP-I, respectively (Figure 3B).

Effect of PVP-I on influenza A virus sialidase activity

In order to examine the effect of PVP-I on sialidase activity of different subtypes of influenza virus strains, the enzyme activity and Km value of each virus subtype were determined at pH 6.0 using 2'-(4-methylumbelliferyl)-α-D-N-acetylneuraminic acid (MUNA), a sensitive fluorogenic substrate without 2,3 and 2,6 linkages. Then an inhibition assay was performed using 2 enzyme units of each virus subtype and substrate concentration at its Km value. IC50 values of OC against sialidase of different virus strains were ranged from 0.37 to 6.88 nM (data not shown). There were marked differences in IC50 values for PVP-I, from 9.5 to 212.1 μg/ml depending on the virus strain (Table 1).

The kinetic mechanism by which PVP-I inhibits influenza A virus sialidase activity was investigated by determining kinetic parameters of human A/PR/8/34 (H1N1) sialidase on hydrolysis of MUNA in the absence and presence of an inhibitor. As shown in Table 2, with OC or 2-deoxy-2,3-dehydro-N-acetylneuraminic acid (DANA), Km values increased, but Vmax did not change. In the presence of PVP-I, Km values increased and Vmax decreased. Vmax/Km ratio decreased 6-fold, 6-fold and 12-fold in the presence of 4 nM OC, 75 μg/ml PVP-I and 5 μM DANA, respectively, indicating decrease in sialidase efficiency. Lineweaver-Burk plots showed that inhibition of A/PR/8/34 sialidase activity by OC and DANA was of a competitive type, whereas that by PVP-I was of a mixed type (Figure 4). The Ki values for free sialidase for OC, DANA and PVP-I were 0.66 nM, 432.60 nM and 11.74 μg/ml, respectively, and the Ki for sialidase-MUNA complex for PVP-I was 190.63 μg/ml, whereas Km for MUNA was 14.66 μM (7.17 μg/ml). Thus, the competitive inhibitors OC and DANA exhibited 2.21 × 104- and 34-fold higher affinities for influenza sialidase, respectively, than that of MUNA, whereas the mixed-type inhibitor PVP-I, with two inhibition constants, Ki for free sialidase and Kis for bound sialidase complex, had 1.6- and 26.6-fold lower affinities than that of MUNA, respectively.

Table 2 Effects of inhibitors on kinetics parameters of A/PR/8/34 (H1N1) sialidase activity
Full size table
Figure 4
figure 4

Lineweaver-Burk plots of inhibition of A/PR/8/34 (H1N1) sialidase activity by OC, DANA and PVP-I. (empty blue diamond) no inhibitor; (filled pink circle) 4 × 10-9 M OC; (filled green triangle) 75 μg/ml PVP-I; (empty orange upside down triangle) 5 × 10-6 M DANA.

Full size image

Discussion

Iodine is a nonmetallic essential nutrient with a potent broad range of microbicide actions against almost all of the important health-related microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, viruses and protozoa. Although a high content of iodine species with free molecular form (I2) and hypoiodous acid (HOI) in aqueous solution has powerful microbicidal effects but can cause volatility, stinging and cytotoxicity [30–32]. To overcome these problems, iodine was combined with neutral carrier polymers to increase iodine solubility and to keep low the release of iodine as a solubilizing agent and to act as an iodine reservoir [30, 33]. The most popular carrier in current use is povidone [32, 33], which has no microbicidal activity [34]. Since povidone slowly and continuously releases free iodine into solution, these properties help to maintain antimicrobial capacity for a long period and to decrease toxicity.

By using the cell counting kit-8 assay, we found that the IC50 cytotoxicity of MDCK cells following 24-h exposure to PVP-I was 2.4 ± 0.2 mg/ml. Based on morphological criteria [35], cell shrinkage, rounding and detachment from the surface of the culture plate after treatment with 3.1 mg/ml of PVP-I suggested that the cells were undergoing apoptosis. Therefore, we used low concentrations of PVP-I that did not cause any toxicity to host MDCK cells in order to investigate its anti-influenza virus activity.

Our results confirmed that PVP-I is a potent inhibitor of influenza virus production in MDCK cells. We indicated that PVP-I inhibits the viral replication in a dose dependent manner and is more active against human viruses (H1N1, H3N2) than avian viruses (H1N1, H5N3, H9N2). PVP-I appeared to inhibit binding of human A/Memphis/1/71 (H3N2) virus to specific sialoglycopolymers but not that of avian A/DK/HK/313/78 (H5N3) virus. Hemagglutination of erythrocytes induced by human viruses was inhibited by PVP-I, while hemagglutination inhibition of avian viruses required higher PVP-I concentrations. Differences in hemagglutination inhibitory activity of PVP-I against various viruses may be associated with the different structure of HA protein of each virus type. Unlike the α2,3 and α2,6 sialoconjugated protein fetuin [36], which reduces HA binding activity of both avian and human influenza viruses via competition for binding with sialyloligosaccharide receptor substrates to the viruses [37], blockage of viral HA attachment to receptor substrates by PVP-I may result from alteration of viral HA protein structure by reaction of free iodine with basic -NH groups, phenolic groups, and -SH groups of amino acid residues [30]. Although avian viruses appear to be less sensitive than human viruses to PVP-I, based on results of the erythrocyte agglutination assay, which reflects viral attachment to host cells, agglutination of avian A/DK/HK/313/78 virus (~400 HAU) was completely inhibited after a second exposure to 5 mg/ml of PVP-I. This is in agreement with the finding that titers of a highly pathogenic avian virus (H5N1) and three low pathogenic avian viruses (H5N3, H7N7 and H9N2) cultivated in embryonated eggs become undetectable by incubation with a commercial PVP-I product for 10 seconds before inoculation [27]. These results suggest that gargling with PVP-I could prevent human infection not only by human influenza viruses that bind to sialyl α2,6 Gal receptors in the upper part of human trachea but also by avian viruses that bind to sialyl α2,3 Gal receptors that exist deep in the human respiratory tract [38]. This could consequently minimize the risk of avian virus mutation, either by adaptation or reassortment, to recognize the human host predominately carrying α2,6-linked sialic acids.

PVP-I inhibited sialidase activity as a mixed-type inhibitor, indicating that free iodine is capable of binding to either free sialidase or sialidase complexed with its substrate, but iodine binding to free sialidase is more efficient than that to sialidase-substrate complex as Ki was 16-fold lower than Kis. This may be explained by the distribution of lysine, arginine, histidine, cysteine and tyrosine residues throughout the sequence of the NA molecule, which are reactive with iodine [30]. Although the Ki value for iodine was higher than the Km value, indicating that affinity of the MUNA substrate for sialidase is higher than iodine, the activity of sialidase to hydrolyze MUNA (Vmax/Km = 0.12) was reduced in the presence of PVP-I (75 μg/ml) (Vmax/Km = 0.02), comparable to that in the presence of OC (4 nM). The reduction in sialidase activity should result in a decrease in influenza replication.

There have been a number studies on the development of harmless carriers (such as cyclodextrin) that slowly release free iodine at a concentration retaining antimicrobial activity without a cytotoxic effect against mammalian cells for use of iodine in therapeutic applications [28, 39]. Intravenous administration of iodine-lithium-α-dextrin has successfully prevented lethal infection of Staphylococcus aureus in rats [39].

Conclusion

Our study confirms the inhibition of avian and human influenza A virus infection by PVP-I and demonstrates that PVP-I inhibits both viral HA binding activity and viral NA catalytic hydrolysis, mediating virus entry into host cells, and virion release and spread to a new host cell, respectively. Thus, PVP-I, for which there has been no report of resistance, is a potential agent that not only prevents viral infections but also reduces the spread of influenza viruses in epidemic and pandemic areas.

Methods

Viruses and cells

Viruses were propagated in 10-day-old embryonated chicken eggs at 34°C, and after 48 h of incubation, allantoic fluid was harvested, cleared and concentrated. The virus pellet was resuspended in cold phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), divided into aliquots, and kept at -80°C until use. Virus titers expressed as HAU were determined (see below) before experimentation. Protein concentration was determined by using a BCA™ protein assay kit (Pierce, Rockford, IL, USA) with bovine serum albumin (BSA) as a standard. MDCK cells were cultured in Eagle's minimal essential medium (EMEM) supplemented with 5% fetal calf serum, antibiotics (penicillin-streptomycin) and glutamine at 37°C in an atmosphere of 5% CO2.

Monoclonal antibodies

Monoclonal antibody 4E6 (mouse IgG1 subtype) directed to influenza virus nucleoprotein (NP) was obtained using A/Memphis/1/71 (H3N2) as an antigen. Monoclonal antibody 2E10 (mouse IgG1 subtype) directed to H3 HA and 2G3 (IgG1) directed to H5 HA was prepared using reassortant virus A/Memphis/1/71 (H3)-A/Bellamy/42 (N1) and A/duck/HK/313/4/78 (H5N3) as an antigen, respectively [40].

Cytotoxicity assay (Cell counting kit-8 assay)

Toxicity of PVP-I (Meiji Seika Kaisha, Tokyo, Japan) against MDCK cells was examined using a cell counting kit-8 (DOJINDO Laboratories, Kumamoto, Japan) to determine the numbers of viable cells using WST-8 [2-(2-methoxy-4-nitrophenyl)-3-(4-nitrophenyl)-5-(2,4-disulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium, monosodium salt] as a substrate. In brief, confluent monolayers of MDCK cells in a 96-well plate were washed with serum-free EMEM and incubated with PVP-I at a final concentration ranging from 0–25 mg/ml for 24 h at 37°C in 5% CO2 atmosphere. After removal of PVP-I solution, cell viability was determined by addition of kit reagent, incubation for 1 h at 37°C, and measurement of absorbance at 450 nm. PVP-I concentrations showing no cytotoxicity against MDCK cells were used in viral infection assay.

Viral infection inhibition assay

Inhibitory effects on virus development in MDCK cells were determined as shown in Figure 1A. An aliquot of virus (V) at the optimal dose (input virus causing 5 × 105 fluorescent forming units, which corresponds to 250 PFU/well equivalent to a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 0.025 PFU/cell, in the absence of an inhibitor [41]) was preincubated with an equal volume of serial dilutions of an inhibitor (I) or serum-free EMEM (100% infection) at 4°C for 1 h (Pretreatment step). A 100-μl aliquot of virus-inhibitor mixture (V+I) was overlaid on MDCK cells in 96-well plates at 34°C for 1 h (Viral adsorption step). After washing with serum-free EMEM, virus-infected cells were cultured in serum-free EMEM containing 2.5 μg/ml acetylated trypsin with or without the inhibitor (at the same concentration as that in preincubation) for 18–19 h at 34°C (Treatment step). Then the cell monolayer was washed with PBS, fixed with methanol for 1 min, and incubated with anti-nucleoprotein mouse IgG (4E6) for 45 min at room temperature. β-galactosidase-labeled anti-mouse IgG with 0.1% block-ace was added and incubated for 45 min at room temperature. Then the enzyme reaction was started by adding 40 μM 4-methylumbelliferyl-β-D-galactoside (MU-Gal) with 50 μM MgCl2. After 45 min of incubation at 37°C, the reaction was stopped by addition of 100 mM sodium carbonate buffer (pH 10.6). Fluorescent intensity of released 4-methylumbelliferone (MU) was measured by excitation at 336 nm and emission at 490 nm (Ex355/Em460) using a fluorescence microplate reader (Fluorescence staining step).

Hemagglutination and hemagglutination inhibition assays

For virus quantitation, a 5-μl aliquot of virus sample serially diluted in PBS was incubated with 50 μl of 0.5% suspension of guinea pig erythrocytes for 2 h at 4°C. Virus titers expressed as HAU were determined by visual reading.

For determination of inhibition of HA binding, a 25-μl aliquot of fetuin or PVP-I serially diluted in PBS was preincubated with 25 μl of virus (4 HAU) in 96-well U-bottom plates at 4°C for 1 h. Hemagglutination was determined as described above.

To visualize agglutination directly, 100 mg/ml of PVP-I was added to a well of a 24-well flat-bottom plate to give a final concentration of 1.25, 2.50, 3.75 or 5.00 mg/ml, followed by addition of 5 μl of virus (214 HAU) to obtain a final HAU of about 400 [42]. To avoid possible cleavage of virus-erythrocyte binding by sialidase, erythrocyte agglutination was observed under a light microscope immediately after addition of 200 μl of 0.25% erythrocyte suspension.

Receptor binding inhibition assay

Specific binding of virus to α2,3 and α2,6 sialoglycopolymers was performed in 96-well plates coated with 0–2,000 ng/ml of sialoglycopolymers as described previously [43]. Briefly, after blocking the plates with 1% block-ace in PBS, viruses (64 HAU) in PBS containing 0.1% Tween 20 (PBST) were added and incubated for 2 h at 4°C. Viruses bound to sialoglycopolymers were detected by anti-HA mouse IgG and HRP-conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG+M, each step being conducted at 4°C for 2 h and followed by washing with PBST 5 times. The reaction color was developed by adding o-phenylenediamine (OPD) and H2O2 in 100 mM citrate buffer (pH 6.0), prepared according to the instruction manual (Wako, Osaka, Japan), terminated by adding H2SO4, and assessed by measuring optical densities at 492 and 620 nm.

A receptor inhibition experiment was performed as described above, but each virus (12 HAU) was preincubated with PVP-I (0–780 μg/ml) or fetuin (0–1,250 μg/ml) in PBST at 4°C for 2 h before the virus mixture was added to the plate coated with 50 ng/ml of sialoglycopolymer.

Sialidase inhibition assay

Five μl of 2 viral enzyme units (one unit being the amount required to liberate 1 nmole of product per min) was preincubated with 5 μl of an inhibitor serially diluted in 20 mM sodium acetate buffer (pH 6.0) at 37°C for 15 min. Enzymatic reaction was started by addition of 5 μl of MUNA to a final concentration equivalent to a Km value of each virus. After 15 min at 37°C, the reaction was terminated by adding 200 μl of 100 mM sodium carbonate buffer (pH 10.6). The released MU products were measured at Ex355/Em460.

To determine the inhibition mechanism, 5 μl of 2 viral enzyme units was incubated with 5 μl of 280–1000 μM MUNA either alone or in the presence of 5 μl of OC, DANA or PVP-I for 15 min at 37°C. The MU products were measured as described above. Data were fitted to the Michaelis-Menten equation for determination of apparent Vmax and Km values and then transformed and plotted as Lineweaver-Burk plots using GraphPad Prism software. Inhibition constant of each inhibitor was calculated according to their inhibition type as follows:

For competitive inhibitor, Kmapperance = Km(1+I/Ki).

For mixed-type inhibitor, Vmaxapperance = Vmax/(1+(I/Kis)) and Kmapperance = Km(1+I/Ki)/(1+I/Kis).

Ki and Kis are dissociation constants for free enzyme-inhibitor and substrate-bound enzyme-inhibitor complex, respectively.

References

  1. Hampson AW, Mackenzie JS: The influenza viruses. Med J Aust 2006, 185: S39-43.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Fouchier RA, Munster V, Wallensten A, Bestebroer TM, Herfst S, Smith D, Rimmelzwaan GF, Olsen B, Osterhaus AD: Characterization of a novel influenza A virus hemagglutinin subtype (H16) obtained from black-headed gulls. J Virol 2005, 79: 2814-2822. 10.1128/JVI.79.5.2814-2822.2005

    PubMed Central  CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Mitnaul LJ, Matrosovich MN, Castrucci MR, Tuzikov AB, Bovin NV, Kobasa D, Kawaoka Y: Balanced hemagglutinin and neuraminidase activities are critical for efficient replication of influenza A virus. J Virol 2000, 74: 6015-6020. 10.1128/JVI.74.13.6015-6020.2000

    PubMed Central  CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Guo CT, Wong CH, Kajimoto T, Miura T, Ida Y, Juneja LR, Kim MJ, Masuda H, Suzuki T, Suzuki Y: Synthetic sialylphosphatidylethanolamine derivatives bind to human influenza A viruses and inhibit viral infection. Glycoconj J 1998, 15: 1099-1108. 10.1023/A:1006961912465

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Matrosovich M, Klenk HD: Natural and synthetic sialic acid-containing inhibitors of influenza virus receptor binding. Rev Med Virol 2003, 13: 85-97. 10.1002/rmv.372

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Spevak W, Nagy JO, Charych DH, Schaefer ME, Gilbert JH, Bednarski MD: Polymerized liposomes containing C -glycosides of sialic acid are potent inhibitors of influenza virus in vitro infectivity. J Am Chem Soc 1993, 115: 1146-1147. 10.1021/ja00056a047

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Govorkova EA, Leneva IA, Goloubeva OG, Bush K, Webster RG: Comparison of efficacies of RWJ-270201, zanamivir, and oseltamivir against H5N1, H9N2, and other avian influenza viruses. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001, 45: 2723-2732. 10.1128/AAC.45.10.2723-2732.2001

    PubMed Central  CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Honda T, Masuda T, Yoshida S, Arai M, Kobayashi Y, Yamashita M: Synthesis and anti-influenza virus activity of 4-guanidino-7-substituted Neu5Ac2en derivatives. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2002, 12: 1921-1924. 10.1016/S0960-894X(02)00328-1

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Shie JJ, Fang JM, Wang SY, Tsai KC, Cheng YS, Yang AS, Hsiao SC, Su CY, Wong CH: Synthesis of tamiflu and its phosphonate congeners possessing potent anti-influenza activity. J Am Chem Soc 2007, 129: 11892-11893. 10.1021/ja073992i

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. von Itzstein M: The war against influenza: discovery and development of sialidase inhibitors. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2007, 6: 967-974. 10.1038/nrd2400

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Yun NE, Linde NS, Zacks MA, Barr IG, Hurt AC, Smith JN, Dziuba N, Holbrook MR, Zhang L, Kilpatrick JM, et al.: Injectable peramivir mitigates disease and promotes survival in ferrets and mice infected with the highly virulent influenza virus, A/Vietnam/1203/04 (H5N1). Virology 2008, 374: 198-209. 10.1016/j.virol.2007.12.029

    PubMed Central  CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Guo CT, Sun XL, Kanie O, Shortridge KF, Suzuki T, Miyamoto D, Hidari KI, Wong CH, Suzuki Y: An O -glycoside of sialic acid derivative that inhibits both hemagglutinin and sialidase activities of influenza viruses. Glycobiology 2002, 12: 183-190. 10.1093/glycob/12.3.183

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. von Itzstein M, Wu WY, Kok GB, Pegg MS, Dyason JC, Jin B, Van Phan T, Smythe ML, White HF, Oliver SW, et al.: Rational design of potent sialidase-based inhibitors of influenza virus replication. Nature 1993, 363: 418-423. 10.1038/363418a0

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Li W, Escarpe PA, Eisenberg EJ, Cundy KC, Sweet C, Jakeman KJ, Merson J, Lew W, Williams M, Zhang L, et al.: Identification of GS 4104 as an orally bioavailable prodrug of the influenza virus neuraminidase inhibitor GS 4071. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998, 42: 647-653.

    PubMed Central  CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Le QM, Kiso M, Someya K, Sakai YT, Nguyen TH, Nguyen KH, Pham ND, Ngyen HH, Yamada S, Muramoto Y, et al.: Avian flu: isolation of drug-resistant H5N1 virus. Nature 2005, 437: 1108. 10.1038/4371108a

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Mishin VP, Hayden FG, Gubareva LV: Susceptibilities of antiviral-resistant influenza viruses to novel neuraminidase inhibitors. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005, 49: 4515-4520. 10.1128/AAC.49.11.4515-4520.2005

    PubMed Central  CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Collins PJ, Haire LF, Lin YP, Liu J, Russell RJ, Walker PA, Skehel JJ, Martin SR, Hay AJ, Gamblin SJ: Crystal structures of oseltamivir-resistant influenza virus neuraminidase mutants. Nature 2008, 453: 1258-1261. 10.1038/nature06956

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. McKimm-Breschkin JL, Selleck PW, Usman TB, Johnson MA: Reduced sensitivity of influenza A (H5N1) to oseltamivir. Emerg Infect Dis 2007, 13: 1354-1357.

    PubMed Central  CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Situation updates – Influenza A(H1N1)[http://www.who.int/csr/disease/swineflu/updates/en/index.html]

  20. Zamora JL: Chemical and microbiologic characteristics and toxicity of povidone-iodine solutions. Am J Surg 1986, 151: 400-406. 10.1016/0002-9610(86)90477-0

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Lacey RW, Catto A: Action of povidone-iodine against methicillin-sensitive and -resistant cultures of Staphylococcus aureus . Postgrad Med J 1993,69(Suppl 3):S78-83.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Mycock G: Methicillin/antiseptic-resistant Staphylococcus aureus . Lancet 1985, 2: 949-950. 10.1016/S0140-6736(85)90881-5

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Boudouma M, Enjalbert L, Didier J: A simple method for the evaluation of antiseptic and disinfectant virucidal activity. J Virol Methods 1984, 9: 271-276. 10.1016/0166-0934(84)90052-1

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Woodbridge P: The use of betadine antiseptic paint in the treatment of Herpes simplex and Herpes Zoster. J Int Med Res 1977, 5: 378-381.

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Harbison MA, Hammer SM: Inactivation of human immunodeficiency virus by betadine products and chlorhexidine. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1989, 2: 16-20.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Kawana R, Kitamura T, Nakagomi O, Matsumoto I, Arita M, Yoshihara N, Yanagi K, Yamada A, Morita O, Yoshida Y, et al.: Inactivation of human viruses by povidone-iodine in comparison with other antiseptics. Dermatology 1997,195(Suppl 2):29-35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Ito H, Ito T, Hikida M, Yashiro J, Otsuka A, Kida H, Otsuki K: Outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza in Japan and anti-influenza virus activity of povidone-iodine products. Dermatology 2006,212(Suppl 1):115-118. 10.1159/000089210

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Wutzler P, Sauerbrei A, Klocking R, Brogmann B, Reimer K: Virucidal activity and cytotoxicity of the liposomal formulation of povidone-iodine. Antiviral Res 2002, 54: 89-97. 10.1016/S0166-3542(01)00213-3

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Suzuki Y: Sialobiology of influenza: molecular mechanism of host range variation of influenza viruses. Biol Pharm Bull 2005, 28: 399-408. 10.1248/bpb.28.399

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Gottardi W: Iodine and iodine compounds. In Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation. 4th edition. Edited by: Block S. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger; 1991:152-165.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Gottardi W: Iodine and disinfection: theoretical study on mode of action, efficiency, stability, and analytical aspects in the aqueous system. Arch Pharm (Weinheim) 1999, 332: 151-157. 10.1002/(SICI)1521-4184(19995)332:5<158::AID-ARDP158>3.0.CO;2-N

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Selvaggi G, Monstrey S, Van Landuyt K, Hamdi M, Blondeel P: The role of iodine in antisepsis and wound management: a reappraisal. Acta Chir Belg 2003, 103: 241-247.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Cooper RA: Iodine revisited. Int Wound J 2007, 4: 124-137. 10.1111/j.1742-481X.2007.00314.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Ripa S, Bruno N, Reder RF, Casillis R, Roth RI: Clinical applications of povidone-iodine as a topical antimicrobial. In Handbook of topical antimicrobials: industrial applications in consumer products and pharmaceuticals. Edited by: Paulson DS. New York: Marcel Dekker; 2003:77-98.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Rello S, Stockert JC, Moreno V, Gamez A, Pacheco M, Juarranz A, Canete M, Villanueva A: Morphological criteria to distinguish cell death induced by apoptotic and necrotic treatments. Apoptosis 2005, 10: 201-208. 10.1007/s10495-005-6075-6

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Cointe D, Leroy Y, Chirat F: Determination of the sialylation level and of the ratio alpha-(2→3)/alpha-(2→6) sialyl linkages of N -glycans by methylation and GC/MS analysis. Carbohydr Res 1998, 311: 51-59. 10.1016/S0008-6215(98)00196-7

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Takemoto DK, Skehel JJ, Wiley DC: A surface plasmon resonance assay for the binding of influenza virus hemagglutinin to its sialic acid receptor. Virology 1996, 217: 452-458. 10.1006/viro.1996.0139

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Shinya K, Ebina M, Yamada S, Ono M, Kasai N, Kawaoka Y: Avian flu: influenza virus receptors in the human airway. Nature 2006, 440: 435-436. 10.1038/440435a

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Davtyan TK, Hakobyan IS, Muradyan RE, Hovhannisyan HG, Gabrielyan ES: Evaluation of amino acids as mediators for the antibacterial activity of iodine-lithium-alpha-dextrin in vitro and in vivo . J Antimicrob Chemother 2007, 59: 1114-1122. 10.1093/jac/dkm094

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Takahashi T, Murakami K, Nagakura M, Kishita H, Watanabe S, Honke K, Ogura K, Tai T, Kawasaki K, Miyamoto D, et al.: Sulfatide is required for efficient replication of influenza A virus. J Virol 2008, 82: 5940-5950. 10.1128/JVI.02496-07

    PubMed Central  CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Saha RK, Takahashi T, Suzuki T: Glucosyl hesperidin prevents influenza a virus replication in vitro by inhibition of viral sialidase. Biol Pharm Bull 2009, 32: 1188-1192. 10.1248/bpb.32.1188

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Suzuki T, Sometani A, Yamazaki Y, Horiike G, Mizutani Y, Masuda H, Yamada M, Tahara H, Xu G, Miyamoto D, et al.: Sulphatide binds to human and animal influenza A viruses, and inhibits the viral infection. Biochem J 1996,318(Pt 2):389-393.

    PubMed Central  CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Yamada S, Suzuki Y, Suzuki T, Le MQ, Nidom CA, Sakai-Tagawa Y, Muramoto Y, Ito M, Kiso M, Horimoto T, et al.: Haemagglutinin mutations responsible for the binding of H5N1 influenza A viruses to human-type receptors. Nature 2006, 444: 378-382. 10.1038/nature05264

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by a grant-in-aid (20390028) for scientific research B from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan, by Health and Labor Science Research Grants, Japan, and by Tokyo Biochemical Research Foundation.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Medicine, Thammasat University (Rangsit Campus), Pathumthani, 12120, Thailand

    Nongluk Sriwilaijaroen

  2. Health Science Hills, College of Life and Health SciencesChubu University, Kasugai, Aichi, 487-8501, Japan

    Nongluk Sriwilaijaroen, Hiroaki Hiramatsu, Morihiro Ito, Yasuhiko Ito & Yasuo Suzuki

  3. Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of ScienceMahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand

    Prapon Wilairat

  4. Department of Biochemistry, University of ShizuokaSchool of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shizuoka, 422-8526, Japan

    Tadanobu Takahashi & Takashi Suzuki

  5. Global COE Program for Innovation in Human Health Sciences, Shizuoka, CA, 422-8526, Japan

    Tadanobu Takahashi, Takashi Suzuki & Yasuo Suzuki

  6. Department of Viral Diseases and Vaccine Control, National Institute of Infectious DiseasesToyama, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 162-8640, Japan

    Masato Tashiro

Authors
  1. Nongluk Sriwilaijaroen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Prapon Wilairat
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Hiroaki Hiramatsu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Tadanobu Takahashi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Takashi Suzuki
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Morihiro Ito
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Yasuhiko Ito
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Masato Tashiro
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Yasuo Suzuki
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Yasuo Suzuki.

Additional information

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

Conceived and designed the experiments: NS, YS, PW, MT. Performed the experiments: NS, TT. Analyzed the data: NS, YS, TT, TS. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: YS, MT, HH, MI, YI. Wrote the paper: NS, YS, PW. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

Authors’ original submitted files for images

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0 ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Sriwilaijaroen, N., Wilairat, P., Hiramatsu, H. et al. Mechanisms of the action of povidone-iodine against human and avian influenza A viruses: its effects on hemagglutination and sialidase activities. Virol J 6, 124 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-422X-6-124

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-422X-6-124

Keywords

  • Influenza
  • Influenza Virus
  • Avian Influenza
  • MDCK Cell
  • Zanamivir

Virology Journal

ISSN: 1743-422X