- Research
- Open Access
Potency of a vaccine prepared from A/swine/Hokkaido/2/1981 (H1N1) against A/Narita/1/2009 (H1N1) pandemic influenza virus strain
https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-422X-10-47
© Okamatsu et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. 2013
- Received: 23 August 2012
- Accepted: 1 February 2013
- Published: 6 February 2013
Abstract
Background
The pandemic 2009 (H1N1) influenza virus has spread throughout the world and is now causing seasonal influenza. To prepare for the emergence of pandemic influenza, we have established a library of virus strains isolated from birds, pigs, and humans in global surveillance studies.
Methods
Inactivated whole virus particle (WV) and ether-split (ES) vaccines were prepared from an influenza virus strain, A/swine/Hokkaido/2/1981 (H1N1), from the library and from A/Narita/1/2009 (H1N1) pandemic strain. Each of the vaccines was injected subcutaneously into mice and their potencies were evaluated by challenge with A/Narita/1/2009 (H1N1) virus strain in mice.
Results
A/swine/Hokkaido/2/81 (H1N1), which was isolated from the lung of a diseased piglet, was selected on the basis of their antigenicity and growth capacity in embryonated chicken eggs. Two injections of the WV vaccine induced an immune response in mice, decreasing the impact of disease caused by the challenge with A/Narita/1/2009 (H1N1), as did the vaccine prepared from the homologous strain.
Conclusion
The WV vaccine prepared from an influenza virus in the library is useful as an emergency vaccine in the early phase of pandemic influenza.
Keywords
- Influenza A (H1N1)pdm
- Vaccine
- Swine influenza virus
Background
A pandemic influenza caused by swine-origin H1N1 virus appeared in Mexico in 2009 and spread throughout the world [1–3]. The pandemic virus isolates were antigenically similar to classical swine influenza viruses and distinct from H1N1 virus strains circulating in humans since 1977 [2, 4]. A pandemic 2009 (H1N1) vaccine was produced and evaluated in clinical trials [5]. The production of a large amount of egg-produced pandemic 2009 (H1N1) vaccine was, however, limited due to its poor yield in chicken embryos [6], leading to a delay in the efficient control of the pandemic.
It was revealed that the H3 HA gene of A/Hong Kong/68 (H3N2) strain originated from that of isolates from migratory ducks and that pigs served as a mixing vessel for the generation of reassortants with the precedent human H2N2 influenza virus [7–10]. To prepare for pandemic influenza, we have conducted a global surveillance of influenza in birds and mammals since 1977, and have established a vaccine strain library of influenza A viruses [11–15]. Their pathogenicity, antigenicity, genetic information, and yield in chicken embryos have been analyzed and the data are available at http://virusdb.czc.hokudai.ac.jp/.
In the present study, a vaccine strain against pandemic 2009 (H1N1) influenza was selected from 42 H1N1 influenza viruses in the virus library. The potency of inactivated whole virus particle (WV) and ether-split (ES) vaccines prepared from a virus strain in the library was evaluated.
Results
Antigenic analysis of H1N1 influenza viruses
The cross-reactivity of H1N1 viruses isolated from pigs, humans, and birds
HI titer of chicken antisera against representative H1 viruses | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Virusesa | Narita/09 | Sw/Iowa/15/30 | Sw/Hok/81 | PR/8/34 | Hok/4/96 | Dk/Mong/540/01 |
A/Narita/1/2009 | 5,120b | 80 | 640 | 40 | 40 | 80 |
Swine isolates | ||||||
A/swine/Iowa/15/1930 | 1,280 | 1,280 | 2,560 | 20 | 80 | 640 |
A/swine/Niigata/1/1977 | 1,280 | 1,280 | 2,560 | 40 | 160 | 640 |
A/swine/Shimane/1/1978 | 2,560 | 1,280 | 5,120 | 40 | 160 | 640 |
A/swine/Shizuoka/1/1978 | 2,560 | 1,280 | 5,120 | 40 | 160 | 640 |
A/swine/Toyama/1/1978 | 2,560 | 1,280 | 5,120 | 40 | 160 | 640 |
A/swine/Kanagawa/1/1978 | 1,280 | 1,280 | 640 | 40 | 320 | 640 |
A/swine/Hokkaido/2/1981 | 1,280 | 1,280 | 5,120 | 80 | 80 | 640 |
A/swine/Miyagi/5/2003 (H1N2) | 640 | 320 | 2,560 | 160 | 80 | 80 |
Human isolates | ||||||
A/PR/8/1934 | 20 | 40 | 40 | 2,560 | 160 | 20 |
A/Hokkaido/2/1996 | 320 | 80 | 80 | 160 | 5,120 | 320 |
A/Hokkaido/11/2002 | 160 | 80 | 80 | 320 | 5,120 | 80 |
Avian isolates | ||||||
A/duck/Miyagi/66/1977 | 160 | 80 | 80 | 40 | 40 | 640 |
A/swan/Hokkaido/55/1996 | 320 | 80 | 40 | 80 | 80 | 1,280 |
A/duck/Hokkaido/1130/2001 | 160 | 80 | 40 | <20 | <20 | 1,280 |
A/duck/Hokkaido/1203/2001 | 160 | 80 | 80 | <20 | <20 | 640 |
A/duck/Mongolia/540/2001 | 80 | 160 | 40 | <20 | 20 | 1,280 |
A/duck/Hokkaido/83/2004 | 160 | 80 | 40 | <20 | <20 | 640 |
A/duck/Hokkaido/W73/2007 | 80 | 80 | 80 | <20 | <20 | 640 |
Genetic analyses of H1N1 viruses
Phylogenetic tree of H1 HA gene of influenza viruses. Horizontal distances are proportional to the minimum number of nucleotide differences required to join nodes and sequences. Numbers at the nodes indicate confidence levels in a boot strap analysis with 1,000 replications. Viruses shown in bold were used in this study and classified into 3 groups according to the animal from which they were isolated (human, avian and swine). Subtypes of viruses were H1N1 except for those in parentheses. Sw: swine, Dk: duck.
Growth of H1N1 viruses in embryonated chicken eggs
The growth of 18 H1N1 viruses in embryonated chicken eggs was assessed. All the viruses replicated efficiently and had reached a plateau by 48 hours post-infection (p.i.). No significant difference in peak titers of vaccine candidates was detected (data not shown). Sw/Hok/81 showed the highest titer at 108.3 plaque-forming units (PFU)/ml 48 hours p.i., which was 10 times higher than that of Narita/09 (107.3 PFU/ml).
Potency test of the vaccine against H1N1 pandemic virus in mice
Neutralizing antibody titers of mice injected once with the vaccine and virus titers in the lungs after challenge
Vaccine | NT titer to | Virus titer in lungs, mean log PFU/g ±Sea | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Strain | Protein, μg | Formulation | Narita/09 | Sw/Hok/81 | |
PBS | - | - | <10, <10, <10, <10, <10 | <10, <10, <10, <10, <10 | 5.0±0.17 |
Narita/09 | 4 | ES | <10, <10, <10, <10, <10 | ND | 4.6±0.10 |
20 | ES | <10, 20, 20, 20, 40 | ND | 4.6±0.12 | |
100 | ES | 20, 40, 80, 160, 160 | ND | 4.1±0.35 | |
Narita/09 | 4 | WV | 40, 40, 40, 80, 160 | ND | 4.2±0.17 |
20 | WV | 40, 80, 160, 160, 320 | ND | 3.9±0.25* | |
100 | WV | 320, 320, 640, 1280, 1280 | ND | 2.4±0.50** | |
Sw/Hok/81 | 4 | ES | <10, <10, <10, <10, <10 | <10, <10, <10, 10, 10 | 4.6±0.04 |
20 | ES | <10, <10, <10, <10, <10 | <10, 10, 10, 20, 80 | 4.4±0.02 | |
100 | ES | <10, <10, <10, <10, <10 | 10, 20, 20, 40, 40 | 4.7±0.02 | |
Sw/Hok/81 | 4 | WV | <10, <10, <10, <10, <10 | 20, 40, 40, 40, 80 | 4.5±0.06 |
20 | WV | <10, <10, <10, <10, <10 | 20, 40, 80, 80, 80 | 4.4±0.04 | |
100 | WV | <10, <10, <10, <10, <10 | 160, 160, 160, 160, 320 | 4.3±0.09 | |
Changes in body weight of mice injected subcutaneously once with Narita/09 (A) or Sw/Hok/81 (B) vaccine after the challenge with Narita/09. Data are shown as mean body weight ± standard error. ES: ether split, WV: whole inactivated. †: Mice died.
Neutralizing antibody titers of mice injected twice with the vaccine and virus titers in the lungs after challenge
Vaccine | NT titer to | Virus titer in lungs, mean log PFU/g ±Sea | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Strain | Protein, μg | Formulation | Narita/09 | Sw/Hok/81 | |
PBS | - | - | <10, <10, <10, <10, <10 | <10, <10, <10, <10, <10 | 4.4±0.08 |
Sw/Hok/81 | 4.0 | ES | <10, <10, <10, <10, <10 | 20, 40, 80, 160, 160 | 4.4±0.07 |
20 | ES | <10, <10, <10, <10, <10 | 80, 80, 160, 160, 160 | 4.2±0.19 | |
100 | ES | <10, <10, <10, <10, <10 | 80, 80, 160, 320, 310 | 3.9±0.14* | |
Sw/Hok/81 | 4.0 | WV | <10, <10, <10, <10, <10 | 160, 320, 320, 640, 640 | 4.2±0.11 |
20 | WV | <10, <10, <10, <10, <10 | 160, 320, 640, 640, 640 | 3.9±0.28 | |
100 | WV | <10, 10, 40, 40, 160 | 160, 320, 640, 640, 640 | 2.9±0.30** | |
Changes in body weight of mice injected subcutaneously twice with Sw/Hok/81 vaccine after the challenge with Narita/09. Data are shown as mean body weight ± standard error. ES: ether split, WV: whole inactivated. †: Mice died.
Discussion
Vaccination is a measure to reduce the impact of influenza; however, it takes 6 months to prepare a vaccine [16]. Virus isolates from humans usually do not grow well in embryonated chicken eggs, which poses significant limitations for influenza vaccine production. Attempts to increase the yield of candidate vaccine strains have been made by multiple passages in eggs over time or genetic reassortment with a high growth laboratory strain [17, 18]. To prepare for pandemic influenza, a virus library of non-pathogenic influenza A viruses with 144 combinations of 16 HA and 9 NA subtypes has been established [15]. In the present study, we selected vaccine strains from 18 H1N1 virus isolates from birds, pigs, and humans on the basis of their growth in embryonated chicken eggs and their antigenicity. Among these viruses, the yield of Sw/Hok/81 in embryonated chicken eggs showed 108.3 PFU/ml, which is higher than that of Narita/09 (107.3 PFU/ml), indicating that a virus strain selected from the influenza virus library could be used for the vaccine strain.
The 1957 and 1968 pandemic influenza virus strains were reassortants of avian and human strains [19]. Kida et al. showed that viruses in pigs are in antigenically stasis, as are those in ducks, compared with influenza viruses in humans [9, 10]. The present results of antigenic analysis of H1N1 viruses indicate that pandemic 2009 (H1N1) virus was antigenically similar to that of classical swine influenza viruses, not to that of human influenza viruses, as previously described by Garten et al. [2]. Although we cannot predict the subtype of the pandemic strain, the antigenicity of the virus is conserved in pigs or ducks. Thus, antigenically related strains isolated from natural hosts could be used for human pandemic influenza vaccines. In order to update the influenza virus library as a seed of vaccine strains, continuous surveillance of avian and swine influenza and the study of pathogenicity, antigenicity, genetic information, and yield in chicken embryo of virus strains are needed.
In the present study, to prepare for future pandemics, we evaluated the potency of a vaccine prepared from Sw/Hok/81 against the pandemic 2009 (H1N1) virus. It was revealed that mice injected with WV or ES vaccine prepared from Sw/Hok/81 induced immunity to suppress the disease manifestation after challenge with Narita/09, although an antigenic difference was observed in these viruses. WV vaccine induces higher immune responses after intramuscular immunization and is superior to ES and subunit vaccine in human populations [20, 21]. The reason for these immune responses to WV vaccine is the stimulation of innate [22] and cell-mediated immune responses to internal viral proteins. Indeed, identity of NP protein between Sw/Hok/81 and Narita/09 were 96.9%. In the previous studies, WV vaccine prepared from a virus strain selected from the library also showed protective efficacy against H5 and H7 virus infection in chicken, mice and cynomolgus macaques [23–28]. These results suggest that WV vaccine should work best in immunologically naive people in the early phase of a pandemic and two injections of the vaccine will be more effective even if the antigenicity of the pandemic strain is partially different from the vaccine strain.
Conclusion
The potency of the vaccine prepared from Sw/Hok/81 for the pandemic 2009 (H1N1) virus was evaluated. Mice injected once with WV vaccine prepared from Sw/Hok/81 induced immunity to suppress weight loss and virus growth in the lungs after challenge with Narita/09. The suppression of virus recovery from lungs of mice injected twice with WV vaccine was similar to that in mice injected once with Narita/09 vaccine. These results suggest that WV vaccine should work best in immunologically naive people in the early phase of a pandemic, and two injections of the vaccine will be more effective if the antigenicity of the pandemic strain is partially different from the vaccine strain.
Materials and methods
Viruses and cells
Eighteen H1N1 influenza viruses isolated from humans, pigs and wild birds were used in the present study as representative of 42 H1N1 virus strains in our virus library (http://virusdb.czc.hokudai.ac.jp/). Narita/09 was provided by the National Institute of Infectious Diseases (Tokyo, Japan). Viruses were propagated in 10-day-old embryonated chicken eggs at 35°C for 48 hours.
Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells were maintained in minimum essential medium (Nissui, Japan) supplemented with calf serum and used for titration of viral infectivity.
Sequencing and phylogenetic analysis
Viral RNA was extracted with TRIzol LS reagent (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA) from the allantoic fluid of chicken embryos infected with the virus. Nucleotide sequences of all eight gene segments were determined after RT-PCR, as described previously [29]. The sequence data were analyzed using GENETYX ver. 9.1 (GENETYX Corporation, Tokyo, Japan). Phylogenetic analysis of the HA gene was performed by BioEdit ver. 7.0 and MEGA 5 by the neighbor-joining method with 1,000 bootstraps.
Serological tests
HI tests were performed by the microtiter method [30]. The HI titer was expressed as the reciprocal of the highest serum dilution showing complete inhibition of the hemagglutination of 4 HA units of the virus. In NT tests, titers were determined as the reciprocals of serum dilution of the complete inhibition of the cytopathic effect of 100 PFU of viruses using MDCK cells.
Viral growth in embryonated chicken eggs
Viruses of 100 50% egg infectious dose (EID50) were inoculated into 10-day-old embryonated chicken eggs and incubated at 35°C for 48 hours. Allantoic fluid was harvested to determine viral titers at different time points (0, 12, 24, 48, and 72 hr). The PFU of each virus in the allantoic fluid was determined.
Vaccine preparation
To assess the potency of vaccines, inactivated WV vaccines of Sw/Hok/81 and Narita/09 were prepared as described previously [31]. ES vaccine of each strain was also prepared according to Kida et al.[32]. Briefly, purified viruses were disrupted with 0.1% Tween 80 and an equal volume of diethyl-ether for 30 min at room temperature. After centrifugation for 30 min at 6,000 g, the water phase was collected and ether dissolved in water was blown out with a stream of nitrogen.
Potency test of vaccine against Narita/09 in mice
WV or ES vaccines of each strain with 4, 20 and 100 μg protein were injected subcutaneously into ten 4-week-old female BALB/c mice (CLEA Japan Inc., Tokyo, Japan), respectively. PBS was injected into control mice. Three weeks after immunization, serum samples were collected and 30 µl of 106.0 PFU of Narita/09 was intranasally inoculated into the mice under anesthesia. Three days after the challenge, five mice in each group were sacrificed and the lungs were collected. The virus titers in the lung homogenates were quantified by plaque assay of MDCK cells. Five other mice were observed for clinical signs and weight loss for 14 days. WV and ES vaccines of Sw/Hok/81 were also injected into mice twice with a 2-week interval. Two weeks after the final injection, the serum samples were collected and Narita/09 was inoculated into mice. Animal experiments were authorized by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University (approved numbers: 9148 and 1052) and all experiments were performed according to the guidelines of this committee.
Declarations
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Miss M. Endo for providing technical support. We would also like to thank Dr. N. Isoda for invaluable advice. This work was supported in part by a grant from the Global Centers of Excellence Program and Program for Leading Graduate Schools from Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. The present work was also supported in part by the J-GRID; the Japan Initiative for Global Research Network on Infectious Diseases and Japan Science and Technology Agency Basic Research Programs.
Authors’ Affiliations
References
- Dawood FS, Jain S, Finelli L, Shaw MW, Lindstrom S, Garten RJ, Gubareva LV, Xu X, Bridges CB, Uyeki TM: Emergence of a novel swine-origin influenza A (H1N1) virus in humans. N Engl J Med 2009, 360: 2605-2615.PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Garten RJ, Davis CT, Russell CA, Shu B, Lindstrom S, Balish A, Sessions WM, Xu X, Skepner E, Deyde V, et al.: Antigenic and genetic characteristics of swine-origin 2009 A(H1N1) influenza viruses circulating in humans. Science 2009, 325: 197-201. 10.1126/science.1176225PubMedPubMed CentralView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Smith GJ, Vijaykrishna D, Bahl J, Lycett SJ, Worobey M, Pybus OG, Ma SK, Cheung CL, Raghwani J, Bhatt S, et al.: Origins and evolutionary genomics of the 2009 swine-origin H1N1 influenza A epidemic. Nature 2009, 459: 1122-1125. 10.1038/nature08182PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Hancock K, Veguilla V, Lu X, Zhong W, Butler EN, Sun H, Liu F, Dong L, DeVos JR, Gargiullo PM, et al.: Cross-reactive antibody responses to the 2009 pandemic H1N1 influenza virus. N Engl J Med 2009, 361: 1945-1952. 10.1056/NEJMoa0906453PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Greenberg ME, Lai MH, Hartel GF, Wichems CH, Gittleson C, Bennet J, Dawson G, Hu W, Leggio C, Washington D, Basser RL: Response to a monovalent 2009 influenza A (H1N1) vaccine. N Engl J Med 2009, 361: 2405-2413. 10.1056/NEJMoa0907413PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Wanitchang A, Kramyu J, Jongkaewwattana A: Enhancement of reverse genetics-derived swine-origin H1N1 influenza virus seed vaccine growth by inclusion of indigenous polymerase PB1 protein. Virus Res 2010, 147: 145-148. 10.1016/j.virusres.2009.10.010PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Yasuda J, Shortridge KF, Shimizu Y, Kida H: Molecular evidence for a role of domestic ducks in the introduction of avian H3 influenza viruses to pigs in southern China, where the A/Hong Kong/68 (H3N2) strain emerged. J Gen Virol 1991,72(Pt 8):2007-2010.PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Kida H, Ito T, Yasuda J, Shimizu Y, Itakura C, Shortridge KF, Kawaoka Y, Webster RG: Potential for transmission of avian influenza viruses to pigs. J Gen Virol 1994,75(Pt 9):2183-2188.PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Kida H, Shortridge KF, Webster RG: Origin of the hemagglutinin gene of H3N2 influenza viruses from pigs in China. Virology 1988, 162: 160-166. 10.1016/0042-6822(88)90405-9PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Kida H, Kawaoka Y, Naeve CW, Webster RG: Antigenic and genetic conservation of H3 influenza virus in wild ducks. Virology 1987, 159: 109-119. 10.1016/0042-6822(87)90353-9PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Kida H, Yanagawa R: Isolation and characterization of influenza a viruses from wild free-flying ducks in Hokkaido, Japan. Zentralbl Bakteriol Orig A 1979, 244: 135-143.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Okazaki K, Takada A, Ito T, Imai M, Takakuwa H, Hatta M, Ozaki H, Tanizaki T, Nagano T, Ninomiya A, et al.: Precursor genes of future pandemic influenza viruses are perpetuated in ducks nesting in Siberia. Arch Virol 2000, 145: 885-893. 10.1007/s007050050681PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Manzoor R, Sakoda Y, Mweene A, Tsuda Y, Kishida N, Bai GR, Kameyama K, Isoda N, Soda K, Naito M, Kida H: Phylogenic analysis of the M genes of influenza viruses isolated from free-flying water birds from their Northern Territory to Hokkaido, Japan. Virus Genes 2008, 37: 144-152. 10.1007/s11262-008-0248-7PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Kida H: Ecology of influenza viruses in nature, birds, and humans. Global Environmental Research 2008, 12: 9-14.Google Scholar
- Kida H, Sakoda Y: Library of influenza virus strains for vaccine and diagnostic use against highly pathogenic avian influenza and human pandemics. Dev Biol (Basel) 2006, 124: 69-72.Google Scholar
- Gerdil C: The annual production cycle for influenza vaccine. Vaccine 2003, 21: 1776-1779. 10.1016/S0264-410X(03)00071-9PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Lu B, Zhou H, Chan W, Kemble G, Jin H: Single amino acid substitutions in the hemagglutinin of influenza A/Singapore/21/04 (H3N2) increase virus growth in embryonated chicken eggs. Vaccine 2006, 24: 6691-6693. 10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.05.062PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Kodihalli S, Justewicz DM, Gubareva LV, Webster RG: Selection of a single amino acid substitution in the hemagglutinin molecule by chicken eggs can render influenza A virus (H3) candidate vaccine ineffective. J Virol 1995, 69: 4888-4897.PubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
- Webster RG, Bean WJ, Gorman OT, Chambers TM, Kawaoka Y: Evolution and ecology of influenza A viruses. Microbiol Rev 1992, 56: 152-179.PubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
- Hovden AO, Cox RJ, Haaheim LR: Whole influenza virus vaccine is more immunogenic than split influenza virus vaccine and induces primarily an IgG2a response in BALB/c mice. Scand J Immunol 2005, 62: 36-44.PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Hagenaars N, Mastrobattista E, Glansbeek H, Heldens J, van den Bosch H, Schijns V, Betbeder D, Vromans H, Jiskoot W: Head-to-head comparison of four nonadjuvanted inactivated cell culture-derived influenza vaccines: effect of composition, spatial organization and immunization route on the immunogenicity in a murine challenge model. Vaccine 2008, 26: 6555-6563. 10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.09.057PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Koyama S, Aoshi T, Tanimoto T, Kumagai Y, Kobiyama K, Tougan T, Sakurai K, Coban C, Horii T, Akira S, Ishii KJ: Plasmacytoid dendritic cells delineate immunogenicity of influenza vaccine subtypes. Sci Transl Med 2010, 2: 25ra24. 10.1126/scitranslmed.3000759PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Itoh Y, Ozaki H, Tsuchiya H, Okamoto K, Torii R, Sakoda Y, Kawaoka Y, Ogasawara K, Kida H: A vaccine prepared from a non-pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza virus strain confers protective immunity against highly pathogenic avian influenza virus infection in cynomolgus macaques. Vaccine 2008, 26: 562-572. 10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.11.031PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Isoda N, Sakoda Y, Kishida N, Soda K, Sakabe S, Sakamoto R, Imamura T, Sakaguchi M, Sasaki T, Kokumai N, et al.: Potency of an inactivated avian influenza vaccine prepared from a non-pathogenic H5N1 reassortant virus generated between isolates from migratory ducks in Asia. Arch Virol 2008, 153: 1685-1692. 10.1007/s00705-008-0171-1PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Takada A, Kuboki N, Okazaki K, Ninomiya A, Tanaka H, Ozaki H, Itamura S, Nishimura H, Enami M, Tashiro M, et al.: Avirulent Avian influenza virus as a vaccine strain against a potential human pandemic. J Virol 1999, 73: 8303-8307.PubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
- Sakabe S, Sakoda Y, Haraguchi Y, Isoda N, Soda K, Takakuwa H, Saijo K, Sawata A, Kume K, Hagiwara J, et al.: A vaccine prepared from a non-pathogenic H7N7 virus isolated from natural reservoir conferred protective immunity against the challenge with lethal dose of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus in chickens. Vaccine 2008, 26: 2127-2134.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Kashima Y, Ikeda M, Itoh Y, Sakoda Y, Nagata T, Miyake T, Soda K, Ozaki H, Nakayama M, Shibuya H, et al.: Intranasal administration of a live non-pathogenic avian H5N1 influenza virus from a virus library confers protective immunity against H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus infection in mice: comparison of formulations and administration routes of vaccines. Vaccine 2009, 27: 7402-7408. 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.08.089PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Itoh Y, Ozaki H, Ishigaki H, Sakoda Y, Nagata T, Soda K, Isoda N, Miyake T, Ishida H, Okamoto K, et al.: Subcutaneous inoculation of a whole virus particle vaccine prepared from a non-pathogenic virus library induces protective immunity against H7N7 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus in cynomolgus macaques. Vaccine 2010, 28: 780-789. 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.10.067PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Manzoor R, Sakoda Y, Nomura N, Tsuda Y, Ozaki H, Okamatsu M, Kida H: PB2 protein of a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus strain A/chicken/Yamaguchi/7/2004 (H5N1) determines its replication potential in pigs. J Virol 2009, 83: 1572-1578. 10.1128/JVI.01879-08PubMedPubMed CentralView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Sever JL: Application of a microtechnique to viral serological investigations. J Immunol 1962, 88: 320-329.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Soda K, Ozaki H, Sakoda Y, Isoda N, Haraguchi Y, Sakabe S, Kuboki N, Kishida N, Takada A, Kida H: Antigenic and genetic analysis of H5 influenza viruses isolated from water birds for the purpose of vaccine use. Arch Virol 2008, 153: 2041-2048. 10.1007/s00705-008-0226-3PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Kida H, Brown LE, Webster RG: Biological activity of monoclonal antibodies to operationally defined antigenic regions on the hemagglutinin molecule of A/Seal/Massachusetts/1/80 (H7N7) influenza virus. Virology 1982, 122: 38-47. 10.1016/0042-6822(82)90375-0PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Copyright
This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
