Fig. 3
Potential mechanisms of viral transmission by exosomes. EVs play a crucial role in facilitating viral infection through three distinct mechanisms. Firstly, they enable the transfer of cell surface proteins or chemokine co-receptors to null-target cells that do not possess their viral co-receptors. This transfer enhances the susceptibility of these cells to viral infection. Secondly, EVs assist viruses in evading the host immune system, thereby promoting their survival and replication within the host. Lastly, EVs transfer viral components, such as viral proteins and RNAs, to recipient cells. This transfer leads to cytotoxic effects on infected cells and gradually depletes immune cells due to the death of uninfected bystander cells [37]