Table 1 Characteristics of included studies

A: Non-hospitalized COVID-19 versus negative control

Larsson [36]

Sweden

Adults

45 ± 12

86.4

RC (Matched age)

1584

Non-significant except for mental disorder (higher in the negative arm)

7185

 > 12 weeks

Self-reported questionnaire

Radtke [29]

Switzerland

Children

11 (9–13)

54

PC

109

–

1226

6 months

Both of Self-reported questionnaire and Physician assessment

Blankenburg [18]

Germany

Adolescents and young adults

15 (14–17)

55

PC (Matched age and gender)

188

–

1365

10 months

Self-reported questionnaire

Boscolo-Rizzo [19]

Italy

Adults

49 (21–70)

59

PC (Matched age and gender)

61

Matched

61

1 year

Both of Self-reported questionnaire and Physician assessment

Fjelltveit [22]

Norway

Mixed

44 (0–81)

53

PC (Matched age, gender and comorbidity)

220

Matched

182

12 months

Both of Self-reported questionnaire and Physician assessment

Pereira [28]

UK

Children

11–17

62.3

PC (Study invitation, by age, gender, region, and date of testing)

6407

–

6542

6 months

Self-reported questionnaire

Mizrahi [26]

Israel

Mixed

25 (12–43)

50.6

RC (Matched age, gender and comorbidity)

170,280

Matched

170,280

6–12 months

Physician assessment

Gorecka [23]

UK

Adults

45 ± 13

53

PC (Matched age and gender)

19

Both groups are healthy

10

 > 12 weeks

Clinical examination (Imaging)

Joy [24]

UK

Adults

37 (18–63)

58

PC (Matched Age, gender, and ethnicity)

74

Non-significant except for asthma/COPD which is higher in the case than control

75

6 months

Clinical examination (Imaging)

Liptaka [25]

Slovakia

Adults

40 (32–52)

70

PC (Unmatched)

109

–

132

7 months

Self-reported questionnaire

Selvakumar [9]

Norwegian

Adolescents and Young adults

12–25

60.2

PC (Unmatched)

382

Any comorbidity is 37% for COVID-19-negative compared to 24% for COVID-19 positive

85

6 months

Both of Self-reported questionnaire and Physician assessment

Soraas [31]

Norway

Adults

48.5 ± 13.5

56.8

PC (Unmatched)

676

–

6006

3–8 months

Self-reported questionnaire

Stephenson [32]

UK

Children

11–17

63.5

PC (Month of test, age, gender, and geographical region)

3065

–

3739

3 months

Self-reported questionnaire

Funk (a) [35]

Argentina, Canada, Costa Rica, Italy, Paraguay, Singapore, Spain, and the United States

Children

3 (0–10)

45

PC (Matched hospitalization status, country, and recruitment date)

1295

Matched

1321

3 months

Self-reported questionnaire

Tarazona [33]

France

Adults

45.8 ± 14.9

59.4

PC (Matched age, gender and comorbidity)

96

Non-significant except for cardiological conditions (higher in case)

81

12 months

Self-reported questionnaire

Van der Maaden [34]

Netherlands

Adults

49 (37–61)

63.7

PC (Matched age, gender, and comorbidity)

6,614

Matched

1330

3 months

Both of Self-reported questionnaire and Physician assessment

B: Hospitalized COVID-19 versus non COVID hospitalized control

Funk (b) [35]

Argentina, Canada, Costa Rica, Italy, Paraguay, Singapore, Spain, and the United States)

Children

4 (0–12)

45

PC (Matched hospitalization status, country, and recruitment date)

391

Matched

380

3 months

Self-report questionnaire

Elkan [21]

Israel

Adults

58.5 (49.8–68.3)

56.1

RC (Matched age and gender)

42

Matched in all except for chronic lung disease (higher in non-COVID control)

42

9 months

Self-report questionnaire

Castro [20]

USA

Adults

63 (50–76)

47

RC (Unmatched)

6619

–

36,342

3–5 months

Physician assessment

Nersesjan [27]

Denmark

Adults

56.8 ± 14

42

PC (Matched age, gender, and ICU status from the same hospital, including patients in the ICU)

85

Matched

61

6 months

Both of Self-reported questionnaire and Physician assessment

Rivera-Izquierdo [30]

Spain

Adults

61.2 ± 14.3

42.6

PC (Matched institution and date of admission)

453

Matched

453

12 months

Self-report questionnaire