Table 1 Natural products and their sources with their antiviral action
From: A study on the effect of natural products against the transmission of B.1.1.529 Omicron
Type | Source | Mode of action | References | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Flavonoids | ||||
1 | Caflanone | Cannabis sativa | It has a great binding affinity towards ACE2 in the host cell instead of the spike of coronavirus glycoprotein-binding site and so it triggers inhibition of the virus entry via endocytosis It also decreases the expression of cytokines such as viz. IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, Mip-1α, and TNF-α | [77] |
2 | Hesperetin | Citrus fruits such as Cordia sebestena L Origanum majorana L | It has a great binding affinity towards ACE2 in the host cell instead of the spike of coronavirus glycoprotein-binding site and so it triggers inhibition of the virus entry via endocytosis It is considered a potential antioxidant scavenger against superoxide, hydroxyl radicals, and nitric oxide production | |
3 | Myricetin | Myrica rubra Hypericum afrum Abelmoschus moschatus | It has a great binding affinity towards ACE2 in the host cell instead of the spike of coronavirus glycoprotein-binding site and so it triggers inhibition of the virus entry via endocytosis | |
4 | Linebacker | Cannabis sativa | It is considered a novel prophylactic and a therapeutic natural product. Because it has a great binding affinity towards ACE2 in the host cell instead of the spike of coronavirus glycoprotein-binding site and so it triggers inhibition of the virus entry via endocytosis | [77] |
5 | Pectolinarin | Cirsium subcoriaceum Cirsium chanroenicum Cirsium setidens | It has antiviral activity against 3Clpro which main protease that enables the processing of the first proteins transferred from the viral genome-pp1a and pp1ab-into functional proteins in the host cell during the assembly of the virus | |
6 | Quercetin | Euonymus alatus Rosa canina Toona sinensis Allium cepa Malus domestica Brassica cretica Lam | It interacts strongly with the main protease of coronavirus result the stopping of viral assembly | |
7 | Baicalin | Scutellaria baicalensis | It has a strong specific binder to 3Clpro which main protease that enables the processing of the first proteins transferred from the viral genome-pp1a and pp1ab-into functional proteins in the host cell during the assembly of the virus | |
8 | Diosgenin | Hellenia speciosa Solanum virginianum Dioscorea bulbifera Dioscorea nipponica | It possesses the potential against the infection of the virus. It has an affinity to bind to ACE-2 in the host resulting in inhibition of viral entrance | |
9 | Luteolin | Honeysuckle Martynia annua L Lonicera japonica Colchicum ricthii Elsholtzia rugulosa | It is an important flavonoid because it has potent antiviral activity against coronavirus. It has an activity to bind with ACE-2 in the host cell instead of the virus. Also, it has antiviral activity against 3Clpro” or “Mpro” and prevents the assembly of the virus | |
10 | Herbacetin | Linum usitatissimum Rhodiola rosea Ephedra sinica | It has potent antiviral activity against coronavirus. It has antiviral activity against 3Clpro and prevents the assembly of the virus | |
11 | Cyanidin | Prunus cerasus Oryza sativa | It binds to the Asp761 catalytic residue of the virus and triggers down-regulate the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and prevents the replication of the virus | |
12 | Kaempferol | Propolis Euonymus alatus Vachellia nilotica Persicaria tinctoria Eruca vesicaria Lagenaria siceraria Nelumbo nucifera | It triggers down-regulation of TMPRSS2 which is the key receptor for the entry of the virus. And so it acts as an antivirus natural product | |
13 | Rutin | Dendropanax morbifer Triticum aestivum Chrozophora tinctoria Spermacoce hispida Calendula officinalis | It has potent antiviral activity by high affinity to bind with Mpro and inhibits the viral assembly | |
14 | Narcissoside | Morinda citrifolia Polygonatum odoratum Lolium multiflorum | It has a higher affinity with the protein complex 6W63 of coronavirus which is the main protease of the virus causing viral inhibition | |
15 | Isorhamnetin-3-O-B-D-Glucoside (IRG) | Calendula officinalis Chrysanthemum morifolium Salvadora persica | It has high affinity, good stability, and flexibility with Mpro by binding resulting in inhibition of viral replication | |
16 | Procyanidin | Uncaria tomentosa Malus domestica Hypericum perforatum Sclerocarya birrea Machaerium floribundum | It has a potential interaction with viral protein which inhibits the function and the infection process It has a low affinity to bind to 3CLpro resulting in inhibition of viral replication | |
17 | Nicotiflorin | Caragana spinosa Nymphaea candida Zeravschania aucheri Edgeworthia chrysantha Brickellia cavanillesii | It has potential an inhibitory effect against the virus by binding to the catalytic dyad of 3CL pro resulting in inhibition of viral replication | |
18 | Broussochalcone A | Broussonetia papyrifera | It has high affinity, higher stability, and less conformational fluctuations in the Mpro of coronavirus resulting in inhibition of viral replication | |
19 | Broussoflavan A | Broussonetia papyrifera | It is considered a promising natural drug against coronavirus. It interacts with Mpro resulting in the Broussoflavan A-Mpro complex which is characterized by high stability and resulting inhibition of viral replication | [122] |
20 | Fisetin | Pigmented fruits and vegetables Elaeagnus indica Hymenaea courbaril Toxicodendron vernicifluum | It targets the protein 3CLpro by making a hydrogen bond with the Cys145A amino acid residues of the virus resulting in inhibition of viral replication | |
21 | Isolicoflavonol | Glycyrrhiza uralensis Broussonetia papyrifera Macaranga indica Macaranga conifera | It targets the 3CLpro protein and interacts by the formation of hydrogen bonds resulting in inhibition of viral assembly | |
22 | Licoisoflavone B | Lupinus albus Lupinus angustifolius Sophora moorcroftiana | It targets the 3CLpro protein and interacts by the formation of hydrogen bonds resulting in inhibition of viral assembly | [124] |
23 | Limonene | Essential oils of several citrus plants | It protects lung fibrosis by interacting with PI3K and NF-κB p65 result inhibition of expression and phosphorylation | [129] |
24 | β-Carophyllene | Ocimum spp Piper spp Salvia officinalis Cinnamomum spp Piper cubeb Humulus lupulus Lavandula angustifolia Origanum vulgare Rosmarinus officinalis | It targets the 3CLpro protein and interacts by the formation of hydrogen bonds resulting in inhibition of viral assembly | [130] |
Terpenoids | ||||
25 | Crocin | Crocus sativus Gardenia jasminoides Laurus nobilis Zingiber zerumbet Dioscorea japonica Teucrium ramosissimum | It acts as promising as terpenoid's natural product against coronavirus. It interacts with the main protease of the virus resulting in inhibition of viral assembly | |
26 | Sarsasapogenin | Anemarrhena asphodeloides Asparagus officinalis Yucca glauca | It has a potential effect against the virus by forming a strong hydrogen bond with Lys290 of Nsp15 of the virus resulting in inhibition of viral infection | |
27 | Ursonic Acid | Piper betle Ziziphus jujube Lantana camara Catharanthus roseus | It has an affinity to bind to Nsp15 of the virus resulting in stable complexes which inhibit viral infection | |
28 | Carvacrol | Lippia multiflora Origanum acutidens Origanum dictamnus Thymus vulgaris | It has potential activity against the virus by binding to the S protein of the virus. Also, its structure of hydroxyl with a phenyl ring enables the virus to have antiviral potency against the virus | |
29 | Glycyrrhizic acid | Glycyrrhiza glabra | It triggers induction of interferon result prevention viral replications | |
30 | Crocin | Crocus sativus Gardenia jasminoides Laurus nobilis Zingiber zerumbet Dioscorea japonica Teucrium ramosissimum | It acts as promising as terpenoid's natural product against coronavirus. It interacts with the main protease of the virus resulting in inhibition of viral assembly | |
26 | Sarsasapogenin | Anemarrhena asphodeloides Asparagus officinalis Yucca glauca | It has a potential effect against the virus by forming a strong hydrogen bond with Lys290 of Nsp15 of the virus resulting in inhibition of viral infection | |
27 | Ursonic acid | Piper betle Ziziphus jujube Lantana camara Catharanthus roseus | It has an affinity to bind to Nsp15 of the virus resulting in stable complexes which inhibit viral infection | |
28 | Carvacrol | Lippia multiflora Origanum acutidens Origanum dictamnus Thymus vulgaris | It has potential activity against the virus by binding to the S protein of the virus. Also, its structure of hydroxyl with a phenyl ring enables the virus to have antiviral potency against the virus | |
29 | Glycyrrhizic acid | Glycyrrhiza glabra | It triggers induction of interferon result prevention viral replications | |
30 | Crocin | Crocus sativus Gardenia jasminoides Laurus nobilis Zingiber zerumbet Dioscorea japonica Teucrium ramosissimum | It acts as promising as terpenoid's natural product against coronavirus. It interacts with the main protease of the virus resulting in inhibition of viral assembly | |
26 | Sarsasapogenin | Anemarrhena asphodeloides Asparagus officinalis Yucca glauca | It has a potential effect against the virus by forming a strong hydrogen bond with Lys290 of Nsp15 of the virus resulting in inhibition of viral infection | |
27 | Ursonic Acid | Piper betle Ziziphus jujube Lantana camara Catharanthus roseus | It has an affinity to bind to Nsp15 of the virus resulting in stable complexes which inhibit viral infection | |
28 | Carvacrol | Lippia multiflora Origanum acutidens Origanum dictamnus Thymus vulgaris | It has potential activity against the virus by binding to the S protein of the virus. Also, its structure of hydroxyl with a phenyl ring enables the virus to have antiviral potency against the virus | |
29 | Glycyrrhizic Acid | Glycyrrhiza glabra | It triggers induction of interferon result prevention viral replications | |
Alkaloids | ||||
30 | Quinadoline B | Fungus Cladosporium sp Aspergillus giganteus Ulva lactuca Scedosporium apiospermum | It has anti-viral activity against the virus by binding the sites of PLpro through H-bonds formation and interacting with the S protein of the virus. It exerts the formation of H-bonding with nsp15 and exerts an effect on the Val292 site of the virus resulting in inhibition of viral infection | |
31 | Scedapin C | Aspergillus giganteus | It interacts with 3CLpro resulting in inhibition of its activity resulting inhibition of viral assembly | [145] |
32 | Berberine | Hydrastis Canadensis Tinospora cordifolia Berberis vulgaris | It interacts with 3CLpro resulting in inhibition of its activity resulting inhibition of viral assembly | |
33 | Nigellidine | Nigella sativa | It interacts with the structural protein Nucleocapsid (N) protein of the virus result inhibition of viral activity. And also, it interacts with Mpro resulting in inhibition of viral replication | [151] |
34 | Noscapine | Papaver somniferum | It has a higher affinity towards the pocket-3 of Mpro by the formation of hydrogen bonds resulting in inhibition of viral replication | |
35 | Oxoturkiyenine | Hypecoum pendulum | It interacts with cathepsin L which is the key factor in the receptor of the host cell resulting in inhibition of viral entry | |
36 | 3α,17α-Cinchophylline | Cinchona calisaya | It has antiviral activity against the virus by interacting with cathepsin L which is the key factor of the receptor of the host cell resulting in inhibition of viral entry | [154] |
37 | Speciophylline | Uncaria tomentosa Uncaria lanosa Uncaria bernaysii | It exerts a high affinity to interact with 3CLpro and prevent viral replication | |
38 | Cadambine | Uncaria tomentosa Uncaria rhynchophylla Neonauclea purpurea | It has a significant affinity to bind with 3CLpro and prevent viral replication | |
Glycosides | ||||
39 | Delphinidin 3,3′-Di-Glucoside-5-(6-P-Coumarylglucoside) (DGCG) | Gentiana cv. Albireo | It has a potential function to interdict the main protease of the virus resulting prevents viral infection | [159] |
40 | Pelargonidin | Pomacea maculata | It is a derivative of anthocyanin which has potential activity against the main protease resulting in inhibition of viral assembly | |
41 | Digitoxigenin | Nerium oleander Digitalis lanata | It acts as an antiviral agent against coronavirus by interacting with the main protease of the virus resulting in inhibition of viral assembly | [83] |
Quinones | ||||
42 | Anthraquinone | Plants cascara buckthorn | It interacts with non-structural polypeptides of the virus resulting prevent of viral activity | [161] |
Monolignols | ||||
43 | Anethole | Pimpinella anisum Illicium verum Vepris madagascarica | It interacts with the S protein of the virus by forming hydrogen bonds resulting in inhibition of virus infectivity | |
44 | Cinnamaldehyde | Cinnamomum verum | It interacts with S protein of the virus by forming hydrogen bonds resulting in inhibition of virus infectivity | |
Phenolic and Polyphenolic Compounds | ||||
45 | Curcumin | Curcuma longa | It triggers reducing of inflammatory cytokines which result from infection. Also, it down-regulates nucleoprotein expression preventing infection. Furthermore, 3CLpro prevents viral replication | |
46 | Syn-16 | Anthoxanthum odoratum Galium odoratum Hierochloe odorata Melilotus Tonka | It acts as coumarin derivatives that possess a potential antiviral effect against the virus by interacting with S1, S2, and S5 pocket residues of the virus. Also, it binds with 3CLpro and prevents viral replication and mutation | [73] |
47 | Gallocatechin gallate | Saxifraga spinulosa Camellia sinensis Diospyros kaki | It has potent antiviral activity against the virus by interacting with S protein of the virus | |
48 | Ararobinol | Senna occidentalis Frangula caroliniana Senna siamea | It has a potential affinity towards cathepsin L which is the key factor in the receptor of the host cell resulting in inhibition of viral entry | |
49 | Gingerol | Zingiber officinale Aframomum melegueta | It possesses a potential antiviral effect against the virus by interacting with 3CLpro preventing viral replication and mutation | |
50 | Nat-1 (coumarin analog) | Anthoxanthum odoratum Galium odoratum Hierochloe odorata Melilotus Tonka | It possesses a potential antiviral effect against the virus by interacting with 3CLpro preventing viral replication and mutation | [73] |
Miscellaneous Compounds | ||||
51 | Isochaetochromin D1 | Fusarium sp | It interacts with the nonstructural protein 15 (nsp15) of the virus resulting inhibition of viral infection | [145] |
52 | Bisindigotin | Isatis tinctoria Persicaria tinctoria | It binds with the S protein of viral spike resulting in inhibition of viral infectivity | |
53 | Edgeworoside C | Edgeworthia gardneri Edgeworthia chrysantha | It interacts with TMPRSS2 and triggers down-regulation of its expression which is the key receptor for the entry of the virus | |
54 | Adlumidine | Fumaria indica Pseudofumaria lutea Dactylicapnos torulosa | It interacts with TMPRSS2 and triggers down-regulation of its expression which is the key receptor for the entry of the virus | |
55 | Asparagoside-C | Asparagus racemosus | It has potent antiviral activity against the virus by interacting with S protein of the virus and inhibits infectivity | [177] |
56 | Asparagoside-D | Asparagus racemosus | It has potent antiviral activity against the virus by interacting with S and N proteins of the virus result inhibition of infectivity | [177] |
57 | Asparagoside-F | Asparagus racemosus | It has potent antiviral activity against the virus by interacting with the N protein of the virus and inhibits infectivity | [177] |
58 | 3-(3-Methylbut-2-enyl)-3,4,7-trihydroxyflavane (MTHF) | Broussonetia papyrifera | It interacts with Mpro the main protease and makes a stable complex resulting in inhibition of virus replication | [122] |
59 | Kazinol F | Broussonetia papyrifera | It interacts with the catalytic residue of Mpro preventing viral replication and mutation | [122] |
60 | Kazinol J | Broussonetia papyrifera | It interacts with the catalytic residue of Mpro preventing viral replication and mutation | [122] |
61 | Cinnamyl acetate | Cinnamomum verum Cinnamomum osmophloeum | It has potent antiviral activity against the virus by interacting with the S protein of the virus and inhibits infectivity | |
62 | L-4-terpineol | Oil of tea tree and lavender Artemisia herba-alba Pistacia chinensis Nigella sativa | It has potent antiviral activity against the virus by interacting with the S protein of the virus and inhibits infectivity | |
63 | Allicin | Allium sativum | It possesses a potential antiviral effect against the virus by interacting with 3CLpro preventing viral replication and mutation | [171] |
64 | Lianhua qingwen | Forsythia suspense Lonicera japonica Ephedra sinica Gypsum fibrosuum Rheum palmatum | It has a great binding affinity towards ACE2 in the host cell instead of the spike of coronavirus glycoprotein-binding site and so it triggers inhibition of the virus entry via endocytosis | |
65 | Pudilan (PLD) | Scutellaria baicalensis Corydalis bungeana | It has a great binding affinity towards ACE2 in the host cell instead of the spike of coronavirus glycoprotein-binding site and so it triggers inhibition of the virus entry via endocytosis | [184] |
66 | Coronil | Withania somnifera Tinospora cordifolia Ocimum tenuiflorum | It reduces cytokine production after viral infection It has a great binding affinity towards ACE2 in the host cell instead of the spike of coronavirus glycoprotein-binding site and so it triggers inhibition of the virus entry via endocytosis | |
Carotenoids | ||||
67 | Astaxanthin | Haematococcus pluvialis Chlorella zofingiensis Chlorococcum Phaffia rhodozyma | It has potent antioxidant activity, free radical scavengers, and anti-inflammatory agents | |
68 | Polyketides Emodin | Aspergillus spp Penicillium spp | It interacts with the S protein of the spike and inhibits viral infectivity. Furthermore, it has a great binding affinity towards ACE2 in the host cell instead of the spike of coronavirus glycoprotein-binding site and so it triggers inhibition of the virus entry via endocytosis | [190] |