Fig. 3

Pinacidil and tolbutamide modulate paraquat-induced mortality of bees. A Concentration–response of paraquat-mediated mortality to honey bees over time. Data points represent mean (n = 5, with 25 individuals per replicate) mortality and error bars represent SEM. Changes to mortality with pinacidil was assessed with routes of exposure being oral- (B) and injection (C). Mortality was assessed at 24-h intervals and data points represent mean (n = 75 bees) % mortality. Error bars represent SD. D Change in total antioxidant capacity over the course of 72 h after exposure to paraquat alone or paraquat/pinacidil combination. Bars represent mean (n = 50–100 bees) antioxidant levels and error bars represent SD. Uppercase letters represent statistical significance (P < 0.05) within the same time point and lowercase levels represent statistical significance (P < 0.05) of the same chemical treatment group across the time points. Significance was determined by one-way ANOVA with Tukey’s posttest